Ravana in the Valmiki Ramayana

Lead

Ravana is the king of the rakshasas in the Valmiki Ramayana. He is repeatedly called rākṣasendra and rākṣasādhipa [VR-CE 3.60.7] [VR-CE 3.46.19], and is known by the epithets Dashagriva, "ten-necked" [VR-CE 5.21.4], and Paulastya [VR-CE 6.48.65]. He is called the son of Vishrava (speaker: Ekajata) [VR-CE 5.21.7] and the younger brother of Vaishravana (speaker: Mandodari) [VR-CE 6.99.3]. His son is Indrajit [VR-CE 6.73.31]. The gods attribute his position to Brahma's favor [VR-CE 1.14.6] and describe him as dreadful in appearance [VR-CE 1.14.11]. The narrative describes him as twenty-armed and ten-necked [VR-CE 3.30.8]. Speakers judge him in opposing ways. Sita calls him cruel and evil-minded [VR-CE 6.25.18], and Vibhishana calls him a molester of others' wives [VR-CE 6.99.32]. Hanuman admires his form and splendor [VR-CE 5.47.17], and Rama calls him great-souled and endowed with strength [VR-CE 6.99.38]. Ravana says the whole apparatus of his kingdom is established in Sita [VR-CE 3.53.16].

Name and epithets

The name Ravana appears directly in the text, for example in the gods' complaint to Brahma [VR-CE 1.14.6]. He is also called Dashagriva (daśagrīva, ten-necked) by the rakshasis [VR-CE 5.21.4] and in narrative passages [VR-CE 3.16.5] [VR-CE 4.58.28]. Vali uses the same name for him [VR-CE 7.34.16]. The related form Dashanana (daśānana, ten-faced) also occurs [VR-CE 5.46.58] [VR-CE 5.56.3].

His lineage epithet is Paulastya, "descendant of Pulastya." Yupaksha uses it [VR-CE 6.48.65], as do the rakshasis [VR-CE 5.21.4] and Mahadeva [VR-CE 7.16.29]. The narrative also calls him "delight of the Paulastya family" (paulastya kulanandana) [VR-CE 3.30.21].

Many titles name him as ruler of the rakshasas:

• rākṣasendra [VR-CE 3.60.7] [VR-CE 6.41.20] [VR-CE 5.3.19]
• rakṣo'dhipati [VR-CE 5.45.37]
• rākṣasādhipa (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.46.19], also used by Mahadeva [VR-CE 7.16.29]
• rakshasapati [VR-CE 7.31.11]
• rakshasam raja (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 6.16.18]
• rakṣogaṇarāja, king of the rakshasa hosts (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 6.47.123]

The rakshasas address him as rakshasarshabha, bull among rakshasas [VR-CE 6.48.75]. Kumbhakarna calls him "best of rakshasas" [VR-CE 6.51.11].

Other epithets describe him through his brother:

• dhanadanuja, younger brother of Dhanada (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 6.16.18]
• dhanadabhrātṛ, brother of Dhanada (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 6.92.15]
• vaiśravaṇānuja, younger brother of Vaishravana (speaker: Mandodari) [VR-CE 6.99.3]. Mandodari also calls him mahābāho, mighty-armed, in the same verse.

Further epithets include:

• devakantaka, thorn to the gods (speaker: Yupaksha) [VR-CE 6.48.65]
• devashatru, enemy of the gods [VR-CE 6.47.101]
• niśācara, night-ranger (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 7.1.24] [VR-CE 6.99.37]
• dhīmat, wise [VR-CE 6.41.20]
• śatrurāvaṇa, one who makes enemies cry out (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 6.25.8]

The patronymic Ravani, "Ravana's son," designates Indrajit [VR-CE 7.1.25] [VR-CE 6.36.8].

Family and origins

Ekajata calls Ravana the son of Vishrava [VR-CE 5.21.7]. The Paulastya epithets place him in Pulastya's line [VR-CE 6.48.65] [VR-CE 3.30.21]. Ravana says he is born to sovereignty [VR-CE 6.10.10]. The gods say that he holds his position by Brahma's favor [VR-CE 1.14.6]. Rama describes him as endowed with strength from boons [VR-CE 6.28.28]. Vishrava says that because of his curse Ravana took on a dreadful nature [VR-CE 7.11.33].

Kubera. Rama names Ravana as the younger brother of Dhanada, the wealth-giver [VR-CE 6.16.18] [VR-CE 6.92.15]. Mandodari calls him the younger brother of Vaishravana [VR-CE 6.99.3]. In the Uttara Kanda the wealth-lord, read by context as Kubera, sees his brother in battle [VR-CE 7.15.13].

Kumbhakarna. Kumbhakarna is called Ravana's brother by the rakshasas [VR-CE 6.48.75], and Kumbhakarna himself calls Ravana his brother [VR-CE 6.48.67]. Ravana calls Kumbhakarna Prajapati's own grandson [VR-CE 6.49.25].

Khara. Khara is called Ravana's younger brother (rāvaṇāvaraja) [VR-CE 2.108.11]. Jatayu also addresses Ravana as Khara's brother [VR-CE 3.49.25].

Sister. A rakshasi is described as Ravana's sister [VR-CE 3.30.21], and the same passage names her Surpanakha [VR-CE 3.30.22]. Elsewhere she is called the sister of Dashagriva [VR-CE 3.16.5]. In the Uttara Kanda, Ravana addresses a sister who is not named in that verse [VR-CE 7.24.19].

Wife. The rakshasas state that Maya is the father of a daughter given to Ravana as wife; she is not named in that verse [VR-CE 6.7.6]. Rama describes Ravana as having a son and wife [VR-CE 6.47.123].

Sons. Indrajit is called rāvaṇātmaja, son of Ravana [VR-CE 6.73.31], and is referred to by the patronymic Ravani [VR-CE 7.1.25]. Ravana speaks of Indrajit's heir-apparent position, his mother and his wife [VR-CE 6.80.13]. Ravana tells Indrajit that his dear brother (sahodara) Aksha has been killed [VR-CE 5.46.8]. Ushana also speaks of the king's son [VR-CE 7.25.7].

Physical description

The fullest narrative portrait comes at Surpanakha's arrival. She sees Ravana at the top of a vimana, of blazing radiance, seated among ministers like Vasava with the Maruts [VR-CE 3.30.4]. The portrait describes him as:

• twenty-armed and ten-necked, in good-looking attire, broad-chested and marked with royal signs [VR-CE 3.30.8]
• resembling smooth vaidurya, with earrings of heated gold, fine arms, white teeth and a large mouth, like a mountain [VR-CE 3.30.9]
• scarred by vajra and thunderbolt in the god-asura clashes, with his chest scarred by the tips of Airavata's tusks [VR-CE 3.30.7]
• struck hundreds of times by falls of Vishnu's discus and by all the gods' weapons [VR-CE 3.30.10]
• dressed in divine garments and ornaments and adorned with divine garlands [VR-CE 3.30.21]
• bright and wide-eyed [VR-CE 3.30.22]

Conflicting judgments of his appearance. The gods call him ghoradarśana, of dreadful appearance [VR-CE 1.14.11]. Sita calls his eyes cruel, misshapen and dark-tawny [VR-CE 5.20.18]. Earlier, when he came to her disguised as an ascetic [VR-CE 3.44.24], Sita described the visitor as saumya-darśana, pleasant to look at [VR-CE 3.44.32]. Hanuman admires his form (rūpa) and splendor [VR-CE 5.47.17]. Rama says he clearly perceives Ravana's form enveloped in tejas [VR-CE 6.47.27]. Rama also says the rakshasa lord's body shines as no hero's among gods and danavas would [VR-CE 6.47.28].

Eyes and teeth in anger. His eyes are described as coppery and rolling with rage [VR-CE 5.42.19] [VR-CE 5.46.58]. They are called red with anger [VR-CE 7.32.25] [VR-CE 6.31.72] [VR-CE 6.93.1] and turned from intolerance [VR-CE 6.27.2] [VR-CE 6.50.11]. Lakshmana describes him roaring, with upturned white tips of the tusks [VR-CE 6.47.92].

Equipment. Jatayu describes him as armed with a bow, chariot, armor and arrows [VR-CE 3.48.20]. His great chariot is described as made of illusion, divine, golden-bodied and yoked with braying asses [VR-CE 3.47.18]. A white umbrella with fine ribs shines where he stands [VR-CE 6.47.24]. Lakshmana says his bow is immeasurable [VR-CE 6.47.89]. Rama refers to his head with blazing earrings [VR-CE 6.92.20].

In battle and death. In battle his bow is cut, and he is struck by arrows, wet with sweat and drenched in blood [VR-CE 6.47.101]. His great crown is cut off [VR-CE 6.47.133]. Mandodari describes him in death wearing yellow garments and fine armlets, lying with limbs flung about and drenched in blood [VR-CE 6.99.25].

Character and traits

Strength and prowess. Several speakers praise his strength:

• Rama calls Ravana and Kumbhakarna mahāvīryau, of great prowess [VR-CE 7.1.24]. He also says the strength of Vali and Ravana is incomparable [VR-CE 7.35.2], and calls Ravana great-souled and endowed with strength [VR-CE 6.99.38].
• Kumbhakarna calls him of incomparable prowess and great strength [VR-CE 6.51.38].
• Suparshva calls him brave, wise, a chariot-warrior and sword-bearer [VR-CE 6.80.56].
• Surpanakha describes him as endowed with wealth, pride and strength [VR-CE 3.31.23].
• A narrative verse concedes his tejas and bala with "granted indeed" [VR-CE 4.58.28].
• Mandodari says he need not be mourned, since his strength and valor were widely renowned [VR-CE 6.99.23].

Against this, Sita calls him a rakshasa of little strength (alpavīrya) [VR-CE 5.24.14]. Pulastya speaks of the incomparable strength of Arjuna, by which Dashagriva was defeated [VR-CE 7.33.14].

Self-assessment. Ravana claims that Rama is not his equal in austerity, strength, valor, wealth, splendor or fame [VR-CE 5.18.33]. In the Uttara Kanda he says something similar of the man a woman desires [VR-CE 7.17.21]. He calls himself lord of the three worlds [VR-CE 7.26.19]. He also claims that going to others' wives or carrying them off by force is the rakshasas' own dharma [VR-CE 5.18.5].

Pride. Ravana is described as proud of his conduct and prowess [VR-CE 5.20.12] and as puffed up with strength [VR-CE 7.32.25]. Rama calls him arrogant (dṛpta) [VR-CE 4.38.7].

Moral judgments. Hanuman offers a counterfactual: if Ravana were not strong in adharma, he could protect the gods' world together with Shakra [VR-CE 5.47.18]. Many speakers condemn him:

• Sita calls his deed despicable, very cruel and most unrighteous [VR-CE 3.51.7]. She says his conduct brings reproach on his family [VR-CE 3.51.8]. She also calls him cruel by nature [VR-CE 5.24.10], dreadful [VR-CE 5.38.11] and censured [VR-CE 5.24.9]. She describes him as possessing illusory power, cruel and evil-minded [VR-CE 6.25.8] [VR-CE 6.25.18].
• Vibhishana says he abandoned dharma and vows, was cruel, merciless and false, and molested others' wives [VR-CE 6.99.32]. He adds that Ravana was devoted to harming everyone [VR-CE 6.99.33].
• Rama says Ravana is joined with adharma and untruth [VR-CE 6.99.37]. He calls him sinful, of unconquered self, and in the company of a foolish companion [VR-CE 6.31.58].
• Angada, reporting Rama's words, calls him cruel and the lowest of men [VR-CE 6.31.67].
• Hanuman calls the one who overpowered Sita petty, sinful and of cruel deeds [VR-CE 5.11.69].
• Jambavan calls him krūrakarmā, one of cruel deeds [VR-CE 5.56.3], and sinful [VR-CE 6.11.37].
• A narrative verse calls him a seizer of sacrifices, cruel, a killer of brahmins and of evil conduct [VR-CE 3.30.20].
• Marica says a king of his kind, ill-conducted and taking evil counsel, destroys himself, his kin and his realm [VR-CE 3.35.7].
• Kubera (speaker identified by context) calls him bound for hell [VR-CE 7.15.21].

An unnamed speaker gives the opposite picture, describing the addressee as one who has seen dharma and artha, taken up tapas, and is of great wisdom [VR-CE 5.49.15].

Anger and desire. Anger appears repeatedly as a passing state:

• He says an unprecedented anger is growing beyond his steadiness [VR-CE 3.52.22].
• He is described as joined with anger and agitation [VR-CE 5.20.7].
• He speaks out of anger [VR-CE 6.47.55], is filled with anger [VR-CE 6.47.90] and is overcome by anger [VR-CE 6.83.9].
• Great anger arises in him after a fall in battle [VR-CE 6.86.23].
• He is very enraged through delusion and impelled by the force of Kritanta [VR-CE 6.93.1].

Ravana says his desire for Sita restrains his anger [VR-CE 5.20.3]. Mandodari says his calamity arose from desire and anger [VR-CE 6.99.22]. Sita says he has reached despair because she does not come to him, and that anger and delusion have seized him [VR-CE 6.80.43].

Views on kinsmen and shame. Ravana says kinsmen rejoice in one another's misfortunes, are concealed in heart and bring fear [VR-CE 6.10.5] [VR-CE 6.10.7]. He admits that the destruction of Kumbhakarna and Prahasta, which came about in line with Vibhishana's words, shames him [VR-CE 6.56.17].

Relationships

Sita. Ravana presents himself to Sita as a prospective husband [VR-CE 5.20.9]. He says no woman equals her in beauty [VR-CE 5.18.13] and that ornaments should be placed on her body [VR-CE 5.18.21]. He also says his whole kingdom's apparatus is established in her [VR-CE 3.53.16]. He also addresses her with contempt:

• as of little merit, foolish, and one who thinks herself learned [VR-CE 6.22.15]
• as fallen into misconduct [VR-CE 5.20.29]
• as proud [VR-CE 5.56.59]

Ravana acknowledges that Sita is attached to Rama [VR-CE 3.47.13]. Ekajata urges that Sita is fit to be Ravana's wife [VR-CE 5.21.8]. Sita says she has come under the control of sinful Ravana [VR-CE 5.24.49]. Rama says she does not deserve lordship in Ravana's inner apartments [VR-CE 6.106.17].

Rama. Ravana's descriptions of Rama are dismissive:

• one whose kingdom is lost, of vanished mind, an ascetic [VR-CE 3.46.16]
• sinful in disposition and foolish [VR-CE 3.38.4]
• abandoned by his father and dwelling in the forest [VR-CE 6.27.4]

He also calls Rama the slayer of his brother [VR-CE 6.56.13]. Yupaksha says no god, Daitya or Danava had ever brought the king into such a situation, but Rama did [VR-CE 6.48.66].

Indrajit. Ravana says all three worlds know Indrajit's missile-strength [VR-CE 5.46.5]. He says Indrajit's prowess and austerity match his own [VR-CE 5.46.6], and he calls him wise [VR-CE 5.46.9]. He judges him superior in strength, seen or unseen [VR-CE 6.67.2]. After Indrajit's death, Ravana says that Indrajit should have performed his father's funeral rites, but the order has been reversed [VR-CE 6.80.14].

Kumbhakarna and Vibhishana. Ravana says no being equals Kumbhakarna in strength [VR-CE 6.50.18]. In a verse of uncertain reference, Kumbhakarna describes a king who has friends in appearance only [VR-CE 6.53.7]. Jambavan says Vibhishana has come from a king with whom enmity is fixed [VR-CE 6.11.37].

Kubera. In the Uttara Kanda, Kubera sees his brother in battle [VR-CE 7.15.13]. Kubera says the gods rejoice in one endowed with dharma [VR-CE 7.15.16] and calls Ravana bound for hell [VR-CE 7.15.21].

Vali. Ravana praises Vali's strength, valor and steadiness [VR-CE 7.34.35]. He offers Vali an undivided sharing of wives, sons, city and realm [VR-CE 7.34.39].

Ministers and court. Prahasta is called best of ministers [VR-CE 5.48.2], and Yupaksha is called the king's minister [VR-CE 6.48.61]. Hanuman says an audience with the rakshasa lord is hard to obtain [VR-CE 5.48.12].

Mandodari. In her lament, Mandodari says Ravana's action has left the rakshasa family without a protector [VR-CE 6.99.22].

Role in the narrative by kanda

Bala Kanda

In the Bala Kanda, Ravana appears mainly through report, summary, and the complaints of others, not through direct narration of his deeds. The opening summary of the story recounts that Ravana heard of the killing of his kinsmen (jñātivadham) [VR-CE 1.1.39] and chose a rākṣasa named Marica as his helper (sahāyam) [VR-CE 1.1.39]. Marica dissuaded him from his course very many times (vāryamāṇaḥ subahuśaḥ) [VR-CE 1.1.40]. The same verse addresses a warning to Ravana that hostility with one who is strong is not fitting for him (na virodho balavatā kṣamo rāvaṇa tena te). The speaker is presumably Marica, though the line does not state this [VR-CE 1.1.40]. Ravana disregarded that advice (anādṛtya tad vākyam) and went with Marica to the hermitage-place (tasya āśramapadam) [VR-CE 1.1.41]. He carried off Rama's wife (rāmasya bhāryām jahāra) [VR-CE 1.1.42], and the abductor killed the vulture Jatayu (gṛdhram hatvā jaṭāyuṣam) [VR-CE 1.1.42]. The summary closes his part with his being killed in battle (āhave) [VR-CE 1.1.66]. The list of narrated topics includes both the rising or uprising (utthāna) of Ravana [VR-CE 1.3.12] and his destruction (vināśa) [VR-CE 1.3.26]. A Southern-only verse tells listeners to hear (niśāmayadhvam) of the killing of the ten-headed one, in addition to the deeds of the Raghu hero [VR-S 1.2.41+1]. That verse uses the epithet daśaśiras ("ten-headed one") and does not contain the name Ravana, so its identification with him rests on the epithet [VR-S 1.2.41+1].

The fullest account of Ravana in this kanda comes from the gods' complaint. The gods say that Brahma, being pleased, gave Ravana a boon (varaḥ) long ago (speaker: devatas) [VR-CE 1.14.7]. They say that he troubles (bādhate) all of them through his vīrya [VR-CE 1.14.6] and agitates the three worlds (udvejayati lokāṃs trīn) [VR-CE 1.14.8]. They also say he wishes to overpower Shakra, king of the thirty gods [VR-CE 1.14.8], and that he transgresses against (atikrāmati) seers, yakshas, gandharvas, asuras and brahmins [VR-CE 1.14.9] (speaker: devatas). The text gives the terms of his claimed invulnerability: Ravana declared that he could not be killed by gandharvas, yakshas, gods, danavas and rakshasas [VR-CE 1.14.13]. He did not mention humans at that time, from disregard (avajñāna) [VR-CE 1.14.14]. A verse in this setting states that he performed intense austerity (tapas tīvra) for a long time, but the identification of its subject is marked uncertain [VR-CE 1.15.4].

Vishnu is then asked to become human and kill Ravana in battle [VR-CE 1.14.19]. The same speaker describes the rakshasa Ravana as afflicting gods, gandharvas, siddhas and the best of sages through excess of prowess (vīryotsekena) [VR-CE 1.14.20], and asks that Ravana be uprooted (uddhara) for the sake of the ascetics [VR-CE 1.14.21]. A Southern-only verse tells the addressee to kill Ravana together with his force (sabala) and kinsmen (sabāndhava) [VR-S 1.14.21+1]. That verse calls him "virāvaṇa," which can mean either "one made to cry out" or "deprived of Ravana-ness," and the reading is uncertain [VR-S 1.14.21+1]. The gods repeat the request that Vishnu take a human body (mānuṣī tanu) and kill Ravana in battle (saṃyuge) [VR-CE 1.15.3]. Beings are then created in many thousands (bahusāhasrāḥ), ready for the killing of Daśagrīva [VR-CE 1.16.9].

Later in the kanda, a speaker again describes Ravana as greatly oppressing the three worlds [VR-CE 1.19.16]. The same passage states that the rakshasa Ravana takes away the prowess of powerful ones in battle [VR-CE 1.19.21]. It also says that when Ravana does not obstruct a sacrifice himself, two rakshasas urged on by him will obstruct it, though this claim is marked uncertain [VR-CE 1.19.18].

Aranya Kanda

Ravana enters the Aranya Kanda through a catalogue of past deeds attached to a relative "he who" (yaḥ), a figure identified as Ravana only by the surrounding context [VR-CE 3.30.13]. In this passage he is said to have gone to the city Bhogavati and defeated Vasuki [VR-CE 3.30.13], and to have defeated Takshaka's beloved wife and carried her off [VR-CE 3.30.13]. He is said to have gone to Mount Kailasa and conquered Naravahana [VR-CE 3.30.14], taking from him the Pushpaka vimana, described as going at will [VR-CE 3.30.14]. The same figure is said to destroy the Caitraratha forest, the lotus pond, the Nandana forest and the gardens of the gods [VR-CE 3.30.15], and to hold back the rising moon and sun with his two arms [VR-CE 3.30.16]. The passage also states that he performed austerity for ten thousand years in a great forest [VR-CE 3.30.17] and offered his heads to Svayambhu, who is not further identified in the verse [VR-CE 3.30.17]. He is called mahābala and is described as one who damages the mantra-praised soma offered by twice-born priests in the oblation sheds at sacrifices [VR-CE 3.30.19].

Surpanakha then addresses him with a very harsh speech [VR-CE 3.30.22], delivered in the midst of his ministers [VR-CE 3.31.1]. She charges that he does not realize his own people and Janasthana have been struck down (speaker: Surpanakha) [VR-CE 3.31.10]. Ravana's response is a question that names Khara, Dushana and Trishiras as killed in battle and Rama as the one whose weapon killed the rakshasas [VR-CE 3.32.3], and asks what that weapon is [VR-CE 3.32.3]. Surpanakha predicts that on seeing Sita he will become subject to the arrows of Manmatha, a statement the pack classifies as metaphor (speaker: Surpanakha) [VR-CE 3.32.19]. She urges him, as rākṣaseśvara, to please the rakshasas by killing Rama [VR-CE 3.32.21], and says that after killing Rama and Lakshmana he will enjoy Sita, whose protector is slain (speaker: Surpanakha) [VR-CE 3.32.22].

An unnamed subject, inferred to be Ravana from later verses, dismisses the counselors after hearing this hair-raising speech; the pack marks this identification as uncertain [VR-CE 3.33.1]. The lord of the rakshasas then goes secretly to the vehicle hall [VR-CE 3.33.4] and afterward speaks further, though the content does not fall in that verse [VR-CE 3.33.38].

In his dealings with Marica, Ravana states that once Rama and Lakshmana have departed he will carry off Sita from the empty place at his ease and unobstructed (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.34.19]. Marica answers him with joined palms and truthful words [VR-CE 3.34.22]. Warnings follow from a speaker not named in the pack: the addressee will go to Yama's abode with his kinsmen, his life taken by Rama's arrow [VR-CE 3.36.28]; Ravana should either fight Rama or show forbearance [VR-CE 3.37.19]; and if he rejects the advice he will give up life in battle with his kinsmen [VR-CE 3.37.20], killed by Rama's straight-flying arrows [VR-CE 3.37.20]. Ravana speaks a harsh and improper speech to Marica [VR-CE 3.38.2], claiming that Rama went to the forest at once after hearing a woman's vulgar speech (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.38.5], and declaring that he will obtain Sita without battle after deceiving Raghava (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.38.19]. Marica tells him to regard Marica as already killed by the mere sight of Rama [VR-CE 3.39.18], and to know that Ravana himself will be killed with his kinsmen if he abducts Sita [VR-CE 3.39.18]. Marica adds conditionally that if Ravana brings Sita from the hermitage in his company, neither Ravana, Marica, Lanka nor the rakshasas will exist (speaker: Marica) [VR-CE 3.39.19]. After speaking harshly, Marica proposes that the two of them go [VR-CE 3.40.1]. Ravana says Marica's speech is marked by valor and is as if spoken by Ravana's own wish (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.40.5], and takes Marica by the hand to speak to him [VR-CE 3.40.10].

At the hermitage Ravana approaches and quickly seizes the opportunity [VR-CE 3.44.2]. He addresses Sita as shobhane and dark-eyed, and says he considers a fine garland, drink, garment and husband suitable for her (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.44.25]. When invited, he looks at Maithili as she speaks fully and fittingly [VR-CE 3.44.35]. Sita becomes angry when he speaks to her [VR-CE 3.45.28], and compares his wish to abduct Rama's wife to carrying a blazing fire off in a cloth, a comparison the pack marks as metaphor (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.45.38]. Ravana tells her that he defeated Vaishravana by prowess in an angry duel (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.46.4], that Dasharatha sent Rama to the forest after installing a dear son (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.46.15], and compares her to Urvashi grieving after striking Pururavas with her foot (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.46.18]. He speaks to her again vehemently [VR-CE 3.47.2], claiming that he could kill Death standing in battle [VR-CE 3.47.3] and check the sun with sharp arrows (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.47.4]. He calls her foolish and one who thinks herself learned, and asks by which qualities she is attached to Rama (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.47.13]. Sita says the doer of this deed has his mind struck by Time (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.47.27] and cries out that Ravana is carrying her off [VR-CE 3.47.31].

Jatayu intervenes, predicting that Rama will kill Ravana in battle before long (speaker: Jatayu) [VR-CE 3.48.23] and declaring that while he lives Ravana will not carry off Sita (speaker: Jatayu) [VR-CE 3.48.25]. The mighty one showers the king of vultures with arrows [VR-CE 3.49.5] and pierces him with sharp, straight-going shafts [VR-CE 3.49.9]. Jatayu disregards the arrows and rushes at Ravana [VR-CE 3.49.10], breaks Ravana's bow and arrow with his feet [VR-CE 3.49.11], and strikes down his divine, gold-armored, piśāca-faced donkeys [VR-CE 3.49.13]. Seeing Ravana fallen with his conveyance broken, the beings cry "well done" and honor Jatayu [VR-CE 3.49.16]. Jatayu says the seizure of Sita is in effect for the killing of the rakshasas [VR-CE 3.49.19], and that those who do not know the consequence of their deeds perish quickly [VR-CE 3.49.21]. The two fight for a muhūrta [VR-CE 3.49.35] until the rakshasa of terrible deeds suddenly cuts off the vulture's wings [VR-CE 3.49.37]. Ravana then sees the vulture fallen near Rama's hermitage with little life left [VR-CE 3.50.1], and repeatedly calls out "Release, release!" [VR-CE 3.50.7].

During the abduction Sita rebukes him at length. She says he announced his name but did not defeat her in battle (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.51.5], calls the deed the abduction of a woman who is alone and belongs to another [VR-CE 3.51.6], and says men proud of their valor will call it despicable, very cruel and most unrighteous (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.51.7]. She recalls his earlier talk of valor and strength [VR-CE 3.51.8], calls him base and says his resolve to carry her off by force will prove fruitless (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.51.13], and names him the abductor of a beloved wife while asking how Raghava would not kill him with sharp arrows (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.51.23].

Ravana crosses Pampa and heads toward Lanka [VR-CE 3.52.5], crossing the sea, the abode of Varuna [VR-CE 3.52.8]. The Siddhas say that Dashagriva has his end in this act [VR-CE 3.52.10]. In Lanka he speaks to the dreadful-looking Pishachi women [VR-CE 3.52.14], ordering that no unapproved man or woman should see Sita [VR-CE 3.52.14], that this be done according to his wish [VR-CE 3.52.15], and that any woman who speaks an unpleasant word to Vaidehi will not hold her life dear (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.52.16]. He then leaves the inner apartment [VR-CE 3.52.17]. He says the force with Dushana and Khara was slain by Rama's arrows [VR-CE 3.52.21], that he will not sleep without killing the enemy in battle [VR-CE 3.52.23], that he will find peace after killing Rama [VR-CE 3.52.24], and that constant effort must be made toward Raghava's killing (speaker: Ravana) [VR-CE 3.52.26]. He shows Sita the whole residence and speaks to her [VR-CE 3.53.13], continuing to address her [VR-CE 3.53.34].

Sita replies that if she had been forcibly assaulted in Rama's presence, Ravana would lie slain in battle; the pack marks this hypothetical as uncertain (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.54.5]. She says Rama's arrows will tear apart his body [VR-CE 3.54.7], that he carried her off from her husband's side without her consent [VR-CE 3.54.13], and that Rama will strip his pride, strength, valor and arrogance with a rain of arrows (speaker: Sita) [VR-CE 3.54.15]. She tells him to bind her insensible body or have it killed [VR-CE 3.54.19], then falls silent [VR-CE 3.54.20]. Ravana, called śatrurāvaṇa, angrily turns to the rākṣasī women [VR-CE 3.54.23] and directs these flesh-eating, terrible-looking women to remove "this woman's" pride quickly [VR-CE 3.54.24]. King Ravana speaks to them further [VR-CE 3.54.26], and on his instruction they take Maithili to the Ashoka grove [VR-CE 3.54.29].

Later in the kanda, Jatayu reports these events. He says Ravana carried off both the devi and his life-breath (speaker: Jatayu) [VR-CE 3.63.14], that he threw Ravana to the ground with chariot and umbrella destroyed [VR-CE 3.63.16], and that Ravana took Vaidehi and flew up into the sky (speaker: Jatayu) [VR-CE 3.63.18]. He adds that Ravana carried her off by resorting to a vast illusion filled with wind and gloom [VR-CE 3.64.9], and that the night-ranger went off southward with Sita (speaker: Jatayu) [VR-CE 3.64.10].

Kishkindha Kanda

Ravana does not appear in person in the Kishkindha Kanda. He is present through other characters' accounts of the abduction of Sita, through their stated intentions to kill him, and through the instructions given to the vanara search parties. The abduction is recalled several times. The narration states that Ravana carried off Rama's wife from Janasthana by force (balāt) [VR-CE 4.51.5] [VR-CE 4.56.8], and elsewhere identifies him as the one by whom Maithili was carried off [VR-CE 4.34.16]. One verse calls him the taker (hartar) of Sita [VR-CE 4.47.14]. Another describes Sita as struggling or quivering (sphurantī) in Ravana's lap or on his hip (aṅke) [VR-CE 4.6.8]. Rama refers to the abductor as the "worst of rakshasas" (rākṣasādhama) who carried off Vaidehi, an epithet resolved as Ravana only by the following verse [VR-CE 4.38.6] [VR-CE 4.38.7]. Rama likens the deed to Anuhlada deceiving Paulomi Shachi, a simile whose operative word is "deceiving" (vañcayitvā), and he calls the act one done "for his own destruction" (ātmavināśāya) (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.38.6]. Rama also says that "this one" was assaulted or overpowered (dharṣitaḥ) by Ravana, though the referent of the pronoun is uncertain (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.29.34]. One passage describes the rakshasa as seeking an opening (antaram prepsu) and as having killed the vulture Jatayu [VR-CE 4.6.3].

Ravana's fight with Jatayu is recounted in the episodes concerning Sampati. The gṛdhrarāja is said to have been struck down in battle (raṇe) by Ravana [VR-CE 4.55.12]. One account credits Jatayu with making Ravana virathā, without a chariot, and states that Ravana then killed him in battle [VR-CE 4.56.10]. A further verse says the vulture, identified by context as Jatayu, was struck down by Ravana, described with the term bahīyasā [VR-CE 4.56.11]. Sampati, identified by context, asks the vanaras to tell of his younger brother Jatayu, struck down in battle by Ravana, whom he calls the stronger (balīyasā) [VR-CE 4.57.2]. The same section has a speaker say he saw her being carried off by Ravana, called durātmā ("evil-minded") [VR-CE 4.57.15]. The siddhas, described as supremely splendid (paramaśobhana), told a speaker about Ravana [VR-CE 4.58.20], and the next verse continues with someone carrying off Rama's wife, the participle carrying on from the naming of Ravana [VR-CE 4.58.21]. A speaker whose identity is unclear says that from where he stands (ihastha) he sees Ravana and Janaki (speaker: unclear) [VR-CE 4.57.28]. The searchers are told that after crossing a full hundred yojanas to the southern shore of the sea they will see Ravana [VR-CE 4.57.23]. One verse foretells that Ravana will carry off "her wife" (tasyā bhāryām). The woman is not named in the verse and is identified as Sita only from the surrounding verses [VR-CE 4.61.6].

Many characters declare that Ravana will be killed, and the text presents these as intentions or prospects rather than outcomes. Sugriva promises to please Rama by killing Ravana together with his retinue (sagaṇa) (speaker: Sugriva) [VR-CE 4.7.4]. Rama says effort is also to be made concerning the rakshasa Ravana, without specifying its nature (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.7.18]. He tells Sugriva that Shravana, the first rainy month, has begun [VR-CE 4.25.12], and asks him to strive at Ravana's killing (vadha) once Kartika arrives (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.25.15]. Rama later says that he will afterward kill "that rākṣasa" together with his realm and host, a reference to Ravana understood from context (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.26.18]. Lakshmana similarly urges Rama to destroy the rākṣasa, understood as Ravana, root and retinue (speaker: Lakshmana) [VR-CE 4.26.12]. Rama states that he will kill Ravana before long (nacirāt) with sharp arrows (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.38.7]. Tara speaks of what will follow once Ravana has been slain in battle (speaker: Tara) [VR-CE 4.34.14]. Sugriva says that Rama will kill Ravana [VR-CE 4.35.7] and describes the narendra as going to kill him (speaker: Sugriva) [VR-CE 4.35.10]. The monkeys are said to be going to kill Ravana in battle (samkhye) and bring back Maithili afterward [VR-CE 4.37.33]. They declare they will kill him [VR-CE 4.44.9], and one unnamed monkey boasts that he alone will kill Ravana when Ravana comes to battle (āhave) (speaker: unnamed monkey) [VR-CE 4.44.10]. An earlier speaker claims, hypothetically, that he could bind Ravana by the neck, unslain (anihata), and hand him over to Rama [VR-CE 4.17.41].

The search instructions name Ravana alongside Sita as the object of the search. Rama asks that the region where Ravana dwells be ascertained (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.39.10], and says that once Vaidehi and Ravana's abode have been found he will do what the time requires (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 4.39.11]. The search parties are told to look for Ravana's abode [VR-CE 4.39.18] and to find Vaidehi and Ravana's dwelling (nilaya) [VR-CE 4.41.46], and they are to return when the month is complete [VR-CE 4.39.61]. Ravana, with Vaidehi, is to be sought here and there [VR-CE 4.39.31], in the groves, caves and forests of a mountain [VR-CE 4.39.56], on the varied ridges and wide caves of mountains [VR-CE 4.41.23] [VR-CE 4.41.26], and in inaccessible places (durga), lakes and rivers [VR-CE 4.41.41]. Further instructions name lodhra and padmaka thickets and deodar forests [VR-CE 4.42.13], the thickets, ravines and caves of a mountain identified by context as Sudarshana [VR-CE 4.42.17], and the moon-like mountains and caves associated by context with Kubera [VR-CE 4.42.23]. Hanuman urges the vanaras together to search for Ravana along with Sita Vaidehi (speaker: Hanuman) [VR-CE 4.51.8]. Despite these efforts, one search party is reported as not having seen Ravana [VR-CE 4.47.14]. A Southern-only verse adds a similar instruction that Ravana with Vaidehi is to be searched for on a mountain's ridges, in its waterfalls or springs, and in its caves, one place after another (Southern only) [VR-S 4.39.57+3].

Sundara Kanda

In the Sundara Kanda, Ravana is the ruler whose city Hanuman enters and whose captive he seeks. Lanka is described as well guarded by Ravana, and this guarding is linked to the purpose of Sita's abduction [VR-CE 5.2.15]. Ravana is named as the abductor of Sita, the wife of Rama [VR-CE 5.1.139]. The lord of the rakshasas is also said to have overpowered naga maidens and seized them by force [VR-CE 5.10.22]. Hanuman goes around Ravana's residences without finding Sita [VR-CE 5.11.2]. At one point the speaker states a possible intention to kill Ravana, "the ten-necked, greatly strong" [VR-CE 5.11.49]. In his later report Hanuman says he entered Ravana's inner apartments [VR-CE 5.56.46] (speaker: Hanuman).

Ravana then comes to the grove. As Paulastya he goes forward, and about a hundred women follow him [VR-CE 5.16.10]. He approaches Sita with sweet words [VR-CE 5.18.1]. He tells her that no humans or shape-changing rakshasas are present [VR-CE 5.18.4]. Addressing her as bhīru, he asserts that approaching or seizing the wives of others, even by force, is svadharma for rakshasas [VR-CE 5.18.5] (speaker: Ravana). He lists garlands, sandalwoods, aloe-woods, varied garments and divine ornaments for her to obtain [VR-CE 5.18.9]. In a verse whose reading is marked uncertain, he tells her to look at his very great valor, which he says has no rival in battle [VR-CE 5.18.19].

Sita puts Ravana behind her back and speaks again [VR-CE 5.19.5]. She tells the night-ranger that the wives of others are to be protected as his own are [VR-CE 5.19.7] (speaker: Sita). In a verse marked uncertain, she says his words are false and that he does not follow what the wise have declared beneficial [VR-CE 5.19.9]. After hearing her harsh speech, the lord of the rakshasas replies [VR-CE 5.20.1] and says that for this reason he does not kill her [VR-CE 5.20.5]. Sita, comforted by the maidens, speaks to him again [VR-CE 5.20.12]. She conjectures that no one devoted to his welfare is among his people [VR-CE 5.20.13]. She says he has spoken a sinful word about Rama's wife and asks where he will go to be freed of it [VR-CE 5.20.15]. She also says she does not turn him to ashes only because Rama has not commanded it and because she wishes to preserve her tapas [VR-CE 5.20.20] (speaker: Sita).

Ravana then gives orders to rakshasis whom he names by their bodily features, among them one-eyed, one-eared, cow-eared, elephant-eared, long-eared and earless ones [VR-CE 5.20.31]. He instructs them to turn Vaidehi round by contrary and favourable means: conciliation, gifts, division and the raised rod of punishment [VR-CE 5.20.35]. The rakshasi Dhanyamalini quickly approaches and embraces Dashagriva [VR-CE 5.20.37]. After her words, "the powerful one" enters a dwelling [VR-CE 5.20.39]. In another verse, King Ravana, called śatrurāvaṇa, instructs all the rakshasis after speaking to Maithili and then goes out [VR-CE 5.21.1]. The rakshasi Harijata claims that Ravana defeated the thirty-three gods and their king [VR-CE 5.21.10] (speaker: Harijata). Another verse states that he repeatedly defeated gods, nagas, gandharvas and danavas in battle [VR-CE 5.21.14]. Dashagriva is also said to have gone toward the southern direction on a boar [VR-CE 5.25.21].

Sita's speeches recall Ravana's earlier deeds. She says he struck down the vulture-king in battle [VR-CE 5.24.19], and that the one soliciting her recognises neither rejection, nor himself, nor his own family [VR-CE 5.24.10] (speaker: Sita). In a verse marked uncertain, she speculates that the evil-souled lord of the rakshasas killed the two brothers by deceit [VR-CE 5.24.45]. When Hanuman first speaks to her, she suspects that this is Ravana himself in another form [VR-CE 5.32.10]. She recalls that he gave up his own form, took the form of a wandering ascetic, and was seen by her in Janasthana [VR-CE 5.32.15] (speaker: Sita). Hanuman tells her that he placed his foot on the head of the evil-minded Ravana in order to come and see her [VR-CE 5.32.38]. He reports that Angada spoke of Sita as living in Ravana's abode [VR-CE 5.33.61].

Ravana's death is announced or wished for many times in the kanda. Rama is described as the valiant one who will kill Ravana in battle before long [VR-CE 5.32.31]. Other verses say Rama will regain Sita after killing Ravana together with his friends and kinsmen [VR-CE 5.33.46]. Hanuman predicts that Rama will first kill Ravana with his friends and kinsmen [VR-CE 5.33.72] (speaker: Hanuman). Rama is also said to be the one who will kill Ravana with his following [VR-CE 5.37.42], and who will slay the dreadful Ravana with his kinsmen [VR-CE 5.65.28].

Sita voices the same expectation in her own words. She asks when her husband will see her after destroying the rakshasas and killing Ravana [VR-CE 5.35.6]. She declares that Death seeks Ravana in battle because he has come under the sway of Time [VR-CE 5.35.10]. She says it would befit Rama to kill Dashagriva there with the rakshasas and take her away [VR-CE 5.35.64], and that such a victory would bring her fame [VR-CE 5.37.28]. In a verse marked uncertain, she asks whether Ravana will be struck down by Rama with a terrible weapon [VR-CE 5.34.26]. She asks that Ravana be struck down quickly with very sharp arrows if Rama has any concern for her [VR-CE 5.65.20]. She asks that Rama be urged to obtain her soon after killing Ravana in battle [VR-CE 5.66.2]. She also pictures Rama with all his forces killing Ravana and taking her to his own city [VR-CE 5.66.12] (speaker: Sita).

After Hanuman attacks the grove, some rakshasis stay and some go to report to Ravana [VR-CE 5.40.11]. In Hanuman's later account, the rakshasis address Ravana as rājan and tell him that his hard-to-reach grove has been broken by an evil-minded vanara [VR-CE 5.56.94]. They ask him to command the vanara's killing quickly [VR-CE 5.56.95] (speaker: Rakshasis). Ravana sends the Kimkaras, described as very hard to conquer [VR-CE 5.56.96]. In a verse marked uncertain, the speaker wonders whether Dashanana would match him in battle [VR-CE 5.39.8]. Survivors report to Ravana that the Kimkaras have all been killed [VR-CE 5.40.35] [VR-CE 5.56.98]. The king then commands the son of Prahasta, described as unequalled in prowess [VR-CE 5.40.36]. Ravana grows angry on hearing that Jambumali and the Kimkaras have been killed [VR-CE 5.42.18]. He sends the strong sons of his ministers with infantry [VR-CE 5.56.103]. When he learns that they too have been killed, he makes a supreme resolve [VR-CE 5.44.1] and orders five army leaders: Virupaksha, Yupaksha, Durdhara, Praghasa and Bhasakarna [VR-CE 5.44.2] [VR-CE 5.56.104].

Ravana gives these five leaders specific counsel. He tells them to stay alert on reaching the forest-dweller and to act in a way suited to place and time [VR-CE 5.44.5]. He says that nagas, yakshas, gandharvas, devas, asuras and great sages were conquered by him together with them [VR-CE 5.44.7]. He lists Vali, Sugriva, Jambavan, Nila and others such as Dvivida, apparently as monkeys he has seen [VR-CE 5.44.10] (speaker: Ravana). In verses where the speaker is identified only from context, he tells the commanders that the three worlds are not enough to stand against them [VR-CE 5.44.13]. He also says that one who desires victory should guard himself, because success in war is fickle [VR-CE 5.44.14].

Dashagriva then sends his son Aksha with many rakshasas [VR-CE 5.56.105]. After Aksha is killed, Ravana steadies his mind and commands Indrajit [VR-CE 5.46.1]. He tells Indrajit that the Kimkaras, Jambumali and the ministers' sons have all been killed [VR-CE 5.46.7]. He urges him to weigh the monkey's force, power and valor against his own strength [VR-CE 5.46.9]. He says that skill with various weapons must be understood and that victory in battle is to be desired [VR-CE 5.46.12] (speaker: Ravana). Hanuman's account adds that Ravana sent "this one," mighty-armed and very strong, with proud heroes and with great confidence [VR-CE 5.56.109].

Hanuman is then dragged before the lord of the rakshasas while rakshasas strike him [VR-CE 5.46.50]. Hanuman says of "this one" that when angry he could make the world a single ocean [VR-CE 5.47.19] (speaker: Hanuman). Ravana speaks timely and meaningful words to his chief minister Prahasta [VR-CE 5.48.2]. Prahasta then questions the monkey and asks whether Indra sent him to Ravana's abode [VR-CE 5.48.4] [VR-CE 5.48.5]. Hanuman conveys a greeting to Ravana about his welfare from Sugriva, whom he calls a brother [VR-CE 5.49.2], and asks him to hear the message [VR-CE 5.56.115]. On hearing the monkey's unpleasant words, Dashanana orders his killing [VR-CE 5.49.36]. In that verse Ravana is called durātman [VR-CE 5.50.2]. Vibhishana objects that destroying the prospect of battle does not befit Ravana [VR-CE 5.50.15] (speaker: Vibhishana). Ravana replies to his brother [VR-CE 5.51.1]. He agrees that killing a messenger is condemned and says some punishment other than death must be inflicted on the captive [VR-CE 5.51.2] (speaker: Ravana). He then gives the command [VR-CE 5.51.5] [VR-CE 5.56.128].

Hanuman's report to the monkeys retells the grove scene. In it Dashagriva speaks to the distressed Sita [VR-CE 5.56.58]. She answers in great anger [VR-CE 5.56.60] and asks how his tongue has not fallen while he says what should not be said [VR-CE 5.56.61] (speaker: Sita). Mandodari addresses Ravana in a sweet voice [VR-CE 5.56.67]. After hearing Hanuman, Sita says, "Let Raghava take me after destroying Ravana" [VR-CE 5.56.83].

The pack contains no Southern-only (VR-S) material for this kanda.

Yuddha Kanda

At the opening of the Yuddha Kanda, Lakshmana tells Rama that he will return to Ayodhya after quickly regaining the abducted Vaidehi and killing Ravana [VR-CE 6.4.39]. In Lanka, Ravana speaks after seeing the dreadful, fear-bringing deed that Hanuman had done in the city [VR-CE 6.6.1]. The mighty rakshasas answer him with joined palms [VR-CE 6.7.1] and recall his past exploits (speaker: Rakshasas). They say he defeated in battle, out of anger, the mighty world-guardian who boasted of friendship with Maheshvara [VR-CE 6.7.4], that he killed and agitated hosts of yakshas and took the vimana from Kailasa's peak [VR-CE 6.7.5], and that Maya, lord of the danavas, gave him his daughter as a wife because he feared Ravana and wished for his friendship [VR-CE 6.7.6]. When Vibhishana counsels him, Ravana replies that anyone other than the addressee who spoke such words would not exist at that moment [VR-CE 6.10.11]. Vibhishana, addressing him as Dashanana, says the words were well-reasoned and came from one who desired Ravana's good [VR-CE 6.10.15].

Ravana rebukes two subordinates and tells them it is unfitting to praise, out of place, enemies who have come for battle [VR-CE 6.20.6]. He calls them sinful praisers of the enemy side and says he would kill them if their earlier services had not softened his anger [VR-CE 6.20.11]. On hearing Shardula's report, he is greatly distressed in mind before he speaks [VR-CE 6.21.14]. He then asks which brave monkeys are in the army that Shardula has surveyed [VR-CE 6.21.16]. He addresses Sita and tells her to listen to an account of her husband's killing [VR-CE 6.22.15], and together with Vidyujjihva he scatters a head and a bow on the ground [VR-CE 6.22.43]. His instructions include an assembly summoned by the sound of a war drum [VR-CE 6.23.41]. At Sita's request, Sarama reports to her what was said in Ravana's council with his ministers [VR-CE 6.25.19]. Malyavan tells him that great dharma was struck down while Ravana roamed through the worlds [VR-CE 6.26.14] (speaker: Malyavan). After assigning Shuka and Sarana to the northern city gate, Ravana addresses his ministers [VR-CE 6.27.19]. Vibhishana recalls that sixty hundred-thousand rakshasas marched out when Ravana fought against Kubera [VR-CE 6.28.20].

In the message he gives Angada, Rama addresses Ravana as one whose splendor has fallen, whose lordship is gone, who is eager to die, and whose mind is lost [VR-CE 6.31.51] (speaker: Rama). Rama also says that Ravana, puffed up, committed wrong out of delusion against sages, deities, gandharvas, apsarases, nagas, yakshas and kings [VR-CE 6.31.51]. After Indrajit pierces Rama and Lakshmana with arrows [VR-CE 6.35.13], Ravana tells the rakshasi guards to report to Vaidehi that Indrajit has killed the two brothers [VR-CE 6.37.7]. He directs them to place Sita on the Pushpaka and show her Rama and Lakshmana lying slain in battle [VR-CE 6.37.7].

When he hears a loud, deep-sounding roar, Ravana speaks among his counselors [VR-CE 6.41.2]. He sends Dhumraksha out to kill Rama, leading a large force of rakshasas of terrible deeds [VR-CE 6.41.19]. He speaks to the army commander, who stands nearby with joined palms [VR-CE 6.43.1]. He tells Prahasta, whom he calls expert in war, that he sees no release for the besieged and suddenly oppressed city other than battle [VR-CE 6.45.5], and Prahasta answers him [VR-CE 6.45.12]. After Prahasta is slain, Ravana is afflicted by grief, his mind seized by anger, and he speaks to the foremost Nairrita warriors [VR-CE 6.47.3]. He says the enemies have killed his army commander along with his followers and his elephant [VR-CE 6.47.4]. He declares that he will go to the battle front himself, without hesitation [VR-CE 6.47.5], and vows to burn the vanara army, Rama and Lakshmana with floods of arrows that day [VR-CE 6.47.6]. He then addresses the mighty rakshasas [VR-CE 6.47.32].

On the field, Hanuman reminds Ravana that he struck down Aksha, Ravana's son [VR-CE 6.47.57] (speaker: Hanuman). In response, Ravana strikes Hanuman on the chest with his palm [VR-CE 6.47.58]. He declares that his astra-directed arrow will make his opponent fall from life even though he guards it [VR-CE 6.47.84], and he then strikes the army commander with that arrow [VR-CE 6.47.85]. He hears Lakshmana's words and the fierce twang of Lakshmana's bowstring, and reaches Lakshmana where he stands [VR-CE 6.47.90]. Rama says that, having judged Ravana exhausted, he does not then bring him under the power of death with arrows [VR-CE 6.47.132] (speaker: Rama). Afterward, Ravana urges his followers to make an effort on the basis of the fact that his boon left out humans [VR-CE 6.48.8].

With Kumbhakarna, Ravana tells him to do what the present time requires rather than spend effort on words [VR-CE 6.51.22]. Kumbhakarna boasts that Ravana will see Rama's head, which he will bring back from battle [VR-CE 6.51.34], and that Ravana will see Sugriva routed that day [VR-CE 6.51.37]. Ravana calls Kumbhakarna "dear one" and "skilled in battle" and says that battle does not please Mahodara [VR-CE 6.53.10]. After his brother is killed, Ravana says that if he does not kill Raghava, his brother's slayer, death would be better for him [VR-CE 6.56.13]. Trishira states that Ravana repeatedly struck down gods and Danavas while himself unarmed [VR-CE 6.57.5] (speaker: Trishira). Ravana orders the killing of Rama, Lakshmana and the forest-dwellers [VR-CE 6.65.3], and he asserts that Indrajit conquers Indra in battle [VR-CE 6.67.3].

Vibhishana advises Rama's side on Indrajit. He says that whoever strikes Indrajit before he reaches Nikumbhila and makes the fire oblation will be his slayer [VR-CE 6.72.13], and that once Indrajit is killed Rama should regard Ravana as killed along with his friends and kin [VR-CE 6.72.14]. He also says that the rest of Ravana's force will be as good as slain once that sinful rakshasa falls at the battle front [VR-CE 6.77.8] (speaker: Vibhishana). Lakshmana prays to his arrow that it kill Ravana's son if Rama is righteous, true to his word and unrivalled in prowess [VR-CE 6.78.31]. Rama predicts that Ravana will march out with a great army once he hears that his son has been struck down [VR-CE 6.79.7].

Ravana orders his great, fearsome bow to be raised that day to the sound of hundreds of instruments [VR-CE 6.80.28]. He says his son used illusion to display a figure as Sita and have it killed, in order to deceive the forest-dwellers [VR-CE 6.80.31]. Sita describes him as ready to kill her [VR-CE 6.80.43] (speaker: Sita). Suparshva urges him to make his sortie that very day, the fourteenth of the dark fortnight [VR-CE 6.80.55] (speaker: Suparshva). Ravana addresses the chief army commanders, who stand before him with joined palms [VR-CE 6.81.2]. A reported speech predicts that Sita, sent forth by the gods, will devour the rakshasas together with Ravana [VR-CE 6.82.36]. Ravana vows that he will send Rama and Lakshmana to Yama's abode with his arrows [VR-CE 6.83.10]. He says he will churn the monkey troops with waves of arrows rising from the ocean of his bow [VR-CE 6.83.13], that the monkey chiefs will adorn the earth with arrows in their faces [VR-CE 6.83.15], that a single arrow of his will pierce hundreds of monkeys [VR-CE 6.83.16], and that he will strew the earth with monkeys pierced and unconscious [VR-CE 6.83.18].

Ravana says he will remove the sorrow over his slain counsellors and the besieged city by killing Rama and Lakshmana [VR-CE 6.87.3]. In battle he releases arrows with the faces of lions, tigers, herons, crows, vultures, hawks and jackals [VR-CE 6.87.39]. Rama says that this sinful one has now come within sight of him in battle [VR-CE 6.88.49]. The narration calls Ravana evil-minded as Rama fights him and keeps releasing volleys [VR-CE 6.89.1]. Lakshmana says that the enemy will not leave alive once he is within range of Rama's arrows [VR-CE 6.89.33]. Rama releases fearsome arrows at Ravana at the front of the army [VR-CE 6.90.1]. Ravana mocks Rama as proud of battle and says he will make him equal to the slain rakshasa warriors [VR-CE 6.91.19]. Rama replies that Ravana would then see his brother Khara, killed by Rama's arrows [VR-CE 6.92.18], and that birds will drag out Ravana's entrails once he lies pierced and lifeless [VR-CE 6.92.22]. Rama then showers Ravana with arrows [VR-CE 6.92.23]. Ravana speaks harshly to his charioteer, and the narration calls him unwise in that verse [VR-CE 6.93.10]. The charioteer responds with beneficial and conciliatory words [VR-CE 6.93.10]. Ravana's arrows fail to reach the standard of Indra's chariot and fall to the ground [VR-CE 6.95.9]. As Rama and Ravana exchange arrows, none misses its target, fails to pierce deeply, or is fruitless [VR-CE 6.95.24].

After his death, Mandodari laments him (speaker: Mandodari). She says that sages, brahmins, gandharvas and caranas fled in all directions out of fear of him [VR-CE 6.99.4], that he was defeated by Rama, whom she calls merely human [VR-CE 6.99.5], and she asks how a forest-dwelling human could have killed one who had overrun the three worlds [VR-CE 6.99.6]. She declares that his destruction by Rama in battle is not plausible [VR-CE 6.99.7]. She also says that he once conquered his senses and thereby conquered the three worlds [VR-CE 6.99.9], that he destroyed enemies in battle with a sun-bright weapon [VR-CE 6.99.27], and that his killing is the cause of her loss [VR-CE 6.99.20]. Her assessment stands opposite Rama's earlier description of him as fallen in splendor, bereft of lordship and lost in mind [VR-CE 6.31.51]. Her statement that his death is implausible [VR-CE 6.99.7] stands against the later report that Ravana was killed [VR-CE 6.113.10]. Rama later recalls the great battle between Ravana and Jatayu, fought for Sita's sake [VR-CE 6.111.19]. Among the events Rama directs to be reported are the abduction of Vaidehi by the very mighty Ravana [VR-CE 6.113.8] and the manner of Ravana's killing [VR-CE 6.113.10].

Uttara Kanda

The Uttara Kanda presents Ravana mainly through accounts of his early career, his campaigns, and later references to his death. Sumali tells a listener that he has received such a boon from the best of the three worlds (speaker: Sumali) [VR-CE 7.11.4]. Dasagriva speaks to his maternal grandfather when the latter comes near [VR-CE 7.11.10], and the night-ranger Prahasta answers him with a respectful, reasoned speech [VR-CE 7.11.11]. In Vishrava's account, the mighty-armed Dasagriva spoke in his presence [VR-CE 7.11.31]. Vishrava says he answered Ravana in anger, repeatedly saying "dhvaṃsasva" (be ruined) (speaker: Vishrava) [VR-CE 7.11.32]. He also tells his addressee that the addressee knows how this rakshasa obtained an excellent boon (speaker: Vishrava) [VR-CE 7.11.36]. A giver bestows on "him," Ravana by context, an unfailing and supremely wondrous śakti [VR-CE 7.12.19].

A messenger tells Ravana that he will relate everything Ravana's brother said (speaker: messenger) [VR-CE 7.13.17]. In response, he presses his hands and teeth together and speaks [VR-CE 7.13.33]. He calls the addressee "mūḍha" (fool) and refers, with the particle "kila" (so it is said), to talk of friendship with Maheshvara [VR-CE 7.13.35]. In the fighting that follows, a chief of yakshas strikes the enraged one running forward with three śaktis [VR-CE 7.15.9]. The ministers of the addressee, headed by Marica, are struck and all flee from the fight [VR-CE 7.15.22]. The lord of wealth is struck by him, Ravana by context, and falls disoriented and drenched in blood [VR-CE 7.15.27].

Ravana approaches a mountain and speaks [VR-CE 7.16.17]. The following verse is classed as uncertain. It is a question and warning addressed to a figure on the mountain, called bhava and possibly Shiva, asking by what power he sports there like a king. A subsequent verse shows that Ravana is the speaker [VR-CE 7.16.19]. Later, Mahadeva, pleased and standing on the mountain peak, releases Ravana's arms and speaks to the ten-faced one [VR-CE 7.16.25]. In the next episode he tells a woman that her response does not fit her beauty [VR-CE 7.17.4]. Calling herself assaulted, sinless, and as if without a protector, she declares that she will be born again to kill the rakshasa she addresses [VR-CE 7.17.25]. Sita is then said to have arisen for the killing of that rakshasa, who is Ravana by context [VR-CE 7.17.31].

Ravana approaches King Marutta and demands that he either give battle or declare "I am defeated" [VR-CE 7.18.6]. When Marutta asks who he is, he laughs derisively before speaking [VR-CE 7.18.7]. He says he defeated his brother and took away this vimana [VR-CE 7.18.9]. Marutta replies that he is indeed fortunate to have defeated his elder brother in battle (speaker: Marutta) [VR-CE 7.18.10]. Marutta also asks whether Ravana obtained his earlier boon merely by practising dharma (speaker: Marutta) [VR-CE 7.18.12]. A verse that does not name its subject says that, after devouring the great sages who had come to the sacrifice, he was satiated with their blood and returned to the earth [VR-CE 7.18.18]. Ravana tells other kings to say "we are defeated" as the alternative to battle [VR-CE 7.19.3]. The rakshasa laughs and speaks to the Ikshvaku king [VR-CE 7.19.18].

Ravana says "it is done" and continues speaking [VR-CE 7.20.16]. He states that he made a vow in anger while desiring battle [VR-CE 7.20.18]. He also announces his intention to join with death the one who causes distress to beings. That figure is not named in the verse, though context points to Yama [VR-CE 7.20.19]. He is described as approaching to bring Yama, the king of the ancestors, under his control by his prowess [VR-CE 7.21.6]. He hurls spears, maces, darts, śaktis, tomaras, arrows, pestles, rocks, and trees [VR-CE 7.21.21]. Although Yama fights him with various weapons for seven nights, the rakshasa is neither routed nor defeated [VR-CE 7.22.13].

Ravana approaches the Nivatakavaca Daityas, who had obtained boons, and challenges them to battle [VR-CE 7.23.5]. The two sides fight for more than a full year [VR-CE 7.23.7]. Speaking of himself in the third person, he declares that Ravana has arrived desiring battle and should be given it [VR-CE 7.23.22]. He looses a swift shower of arrows on the vital points of his opponents, identified by context as Varuna's sons [VR-CE 7.23.37]. He also rains down pestles, hundreds of bhalla arrows, paṭṭiśas, śaktis, śataghnīs, and tomaras [VR-CE 7.23.38]. The rakshasa then gives a great roar and strikes the Vāruṇas with various terrible weapons [VR-CE 7.23.40]. Prabhasa identifies Ravana as the one who challenges Varuna in battle (speaker: Prabhasa) [VR-CE 7.23.43].

Ravana raises up his sister and consoles her [VR-CE 7.24.19]. Surpanakha states that these daityas were killed by Ravana through his valor (speaker: Surpanakha) [VR-CE 7.24.21]. She says she has been struck by Ravana himself, a kinsman (speaker: Surpanakha) [VR-CE 7.24.23]. She adds that Ravana killed him in battle himself and asks whether he feels no shame (speaker: Surpanakha) [VR-CE 7.24.24]. He consoles her and speaks, beginning with conciliation [VR-CE 7.24.25]. He tells her that her husband was killed by him in battle for that reason [VR-CE 7.24.27], and promises to do what benefits her as the time requires [VR-CE 7.24.28]. He then assigns an army to him, Khara by context [VR-CE 7.24.33].

Ushanas speaks to Ravana for the prosperity of a sacrifice [VR-CE 7.25.6]. During the Māheśvara sacrifice, which is very hard for men to attain, the son receives boons (speaker: Uśanā) [VR-CE 7.25.9]. These boons include a divine chariot that goes at will [VR-CE 7.25.10] and two inexhaustible quivers with arrows [VR-CE 7.25.12]. Vibhishana relates that Ravana's son was engaged in a yajña at the time of an abduction (speaker: Vibhishana) [VR-CE 7.25.26]. He says the abductor, Madhu by context, killed the chief rakshasa ministers esteemed by Ravana and carried her off by force (speaker: Vibhishana) [VR-CE 7.25.27].

The accounts of Ravana's response to Madhu differ. Vibhishana states that Ravana forgave the deed on hearing of it and that Madhu was not killed (speaker: Vibhishana) [VR-CE 7.25.28]. Ravana himself declares that he will kill Madhu in battle that day and go to Indra's world [VR-CE 7.25.31]. He later says that he has refrained from killing Madhu because of her compassion and affection [VR-CE 7.25.44].

Ravana rises and takes Rambha by the hand as she is leaving [VR-CE 7.26.12]. He asks her where she is going and what goal she pursues [VR-CE 7.26.13]. Speaking of himself in the third person, he says that he begs her with joined palms and a bowed posture [VR-CE 7.26.19]. Indra comes to Vishnu concerning Ravana and speaks to him (speaker: Indra) [VR-CE 7.27.6]. Named rakshasas run to battle together with Ravana's ministers [VR-CE 7.27.23].

In a battle covered by a net of darkness, Ravana is one of only three, with Indra and Ravani, who do not fall into confusion [VR-CE 7.29.4]. The verse calls him durdharṣa ("hard to assail"), and he speaks in anger to his charioteer [VR-CE 7.29.6]. He vows to destroy the thirty gods himself from the sky with many strong weapons [VR-CE 7.29.7]. He says he will kill Indra, Varuna, Dhanada, and Yama, and that after swiftly killing the gods he will stand above them [VR-CE 7.29.8]. Ravani, speaking while invisible [VR-CE 7.29.32], asks why Ravana should toil in vain, since battle would bring him nothing (speaker: Indrajit) [VR-CE 7.29.35]. Ravana goes to his own son and speaks [VR-CE 7.29.37]. Having obtained victory, he returns gladly to his dwelling [VR-CE 7.29.37].

Ravana, called lord of rakshasas, speaks to his ministers playfully and with laughter [VR-CE 7.31.24]. He says his companions were wounded in battle by kings equal to Indra [VR-CE 7.31.28]. He worships Hara, who is described as removing the distress of the good, granting boons, and wearing moon-rays as an ornament [VR-CE 7.31.40]. A surge of water, compared to something sent by Kartavirya, carries away all of Ravana's flower offering [VR-CE 7.32.7]. He announces that he has come for battle and names himself as Ravana [VR-CE 7.32.26]. Arjuna's ministers reply that the time for battle is known and address him with "sādhu" (speaker: Arjuna's ministers) [VR-CE 7.32.28]. Ravana's ministers kill the ministers of the king in battle [VR-CE 7.32.31]. Unnamed attackers then press upon Ravana's party from all sides with arrows, tomaras, spears, and vajra-like weapons [VR-CE 7.32.33]. A figure takes up a mace and rushes at the rakshasas [VR-CE 7.32.39]. Arjuna's mace strikes the chest of his opponent, Ravana by context, and makes the sky gleam gold like lightning [VR-CE 7.32.55]. In anger and with all his vital strength, Arjuna hurls the mace between Ravana's breasts [VR-CE 7.32.59].

The text says that whenever Ravana hears of a rakshasa or human who is stronger, he approaches that one and challenges him to battle [VR-CE 7.34.2]. Tara, a monkey minister, speaks to him [VR-CE 7.34.4]. After rebuking Tara, Ravana boards Pushpaka and goes to the southern ocean [VR-CE 7.34.10]. Vali, carrying the ten-faced one, worships at twilight at the northern sea and then goes to the eastern ocean [VR-CE 7.34.29]. Vali laughs and asks Ravana where he comes from (speaker: Vali) [VR-CE 7.34.32]. Ravana replies that he came desiring battle and has been met that day by Vali [VR-CE 7.34.34].

Later passages refer back to Ravana's defeat. An unnamed subject is said to be going to perform deeds in battle aimed at the destruction of Ravana [VR-CE 7.36.24]. The sources attribute his death differently. Rama tells the assembled kings that Ravana was killed through their might and splendor (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 7.37.7], together with his host, sons, and kinsmen (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 7.37.8]. The kings, for their part, state that they did not see Ravana standing before them in battle (speaker: the kings) [VR-CE 7.38.3]. Kubera says that Rāghava killed Ravana in battle (speaker: Kubera) [VR-CE 7.40.5], along with his troops, sons, ministers, and relatives (speaker: Kubera) [VR-CE 7.40.6]. Another verse names Rama as Ravana's killer and gives the reason as "for the sake of a woman" [VR-CE 7.60.14].

Rama also recalls that Ravana abducted Sita in the lonely Dandaka forest (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 7.44.5]. He says he did not release a certain arrow earlier, at the time he sought Ravana's death (speaker: Rama) [VR-CE 7.55.13].

How other characters describe them

All judgments in this section come from the Critical Edition (VR-CE). The pack contains no Southern-recension (VR-S) material on how other characters describe Ravana.

Sita

Sita's assessments are the most numerous and almost uniformly condemnatory. During the abduction she calls Ravana's deed despicable (kutsita), very cruel (sunṛśaṃsa) and most unrighteous (adharmiṣṭha), and she says that men who pride themselves on valor will speak of it in those terms throughout the worlds [VR-CE 3.51.7] (speaker: Sita). She recalls that he had earlier spoken of his own valor and strength [VR-CE 3.51.8], and she says that conduct (cāritra) of this kind brings reproach on his family in the world and pronounces "shame" on it [VR-CE 3.51.8] (speaker: Sita). She predicts that Rama will strip him of pride (darpa), strength (bala), valor (vīrya) and arrogance (utseka) with a rain of arrows in battle [VR-CE 3.54.15], and after speaking very harshly to him in anger she falls silent [VR-CE 3.54.20].

In Lanka, Sita tells him that others' wives are to be protected just as his own are [VR-CE 5.19.7] (speaker: Sita). She calls his deed unrighteous (asādhu) and says he did it as one lacking strength [VR-CE 5.19.25] (speaker: Sita). She warns that Rama, when enraged, would not spare a man of Ravana's kind, though a released thunderbolt or Antaka might spare one for a long time [VR-CE 5.19.19] (speaker: Sita). She also offers a conditional path: if he wishes to make Rama a suitable friend and keep a secure position rather than meet a dreadful death, he should act accordingly; the pack marks the grammar of this verse as elliptical and its status as uncertain [VR-CE 5.19.18]. She conjectures that no one devoted to his welfare is among his people [VR-CE 5.20.13] (speaker: Sita), and she says she does not reduce him to ashes only because Rama has not commanded it and because she wishes to preserve her ascetic merit (tapas) [VR-CE 5.20.20] (speaker: Sita).

Elsewhere she calls him a censured (vigarhita) night-ranger [VR-CE 5.24.9] and cruel by nature (nṛśaṃsa svabhāvena) [VR-CE 5.24.10] (speaker: Sita). In the war books she describes him as possessing power of illusion (māyābala), as cruel, as one who makes enemies cry out (śatrurāvaṇa), and as evil-minded (duṣṭātman) [VR-CE 6.25.8] (speaker: Sita). She also judges that he has plainly reached despair (nairāśya) because she does not come to him, and that he is seized by anger and delusion (krodhamoha) [VR-CE 6.80.43] (speaker: Sita).

Rama

Rama calls Ravana arrogant or proud (dṛpta) [VR-CE 4.38.7] (speaker: Rama). In the message sent to Ravana, he states that Ravana carried off Sita relying on some strength [VR-CE 6.16.19], and he challenges him to display that strength as he wishes, together with his army and kinsmen [VR-CE 6.16.19] (speaker: Rama). He characterizes Ravana as sinful (pāpa), of unconquered self (avijitātman), and as having a foolish companion (mūrkhasahāya) [VR-CE 6.31.58]. He also asserts that the one in question did not understand dharma, conduct (vṛtta) or lineage (kula) [VR-CE 6.29.5] (speaker: Rama). After the battle he says this night-ranger was joined with adharma and untruth (adharmānṛtasaṃyuktaḥ) [VR-CE 6.99.37] (speaker: Rama). In the Uttarakanda, he calls Ravana and Kumbhakarna "of great prowess" (mahāvīryau) [VR-CE 7.1.24] (speaker: Rama).

Angada (relaying Rama)

Angada, delivering what he reports as Rama's words, addresses Ravana as cruel (nṛśaṃsa) and the lowest of men (puruṣādhama) [VR-CE 6.31.67] (speaker: Angada). The pack classes this as an insult, not an established fact.

Hanuman

Hanuman's judgments include both admiration and condemnation. Before he has seen Sita, he describes the one who overpowered her as mean or petty (kṣudra), sinful (pāpa) and of cruel deeds (nṛśaṃsakarman) [VR-CE 5.11.69] (speaker: Hanuman). On seeing the rakshasa king, he exclaims inwardly in admiration at his form (rūpa), steadiness (dhairya), strength or spirit (sattva) and splendor (dyuti) [VR-CE 5.47.17]. He reflects that if this lord of rakshasas were not strong in unrighteousness (adharma), he could be protector of the world of the gods together with Shakra [VR-CE 5.47.18] (speaker: Hanuman).

Addressing Ravana, Hanuman says that the dharma he holds, gained by the heat of austerity, should not rightly be destroyed [VR-CE 5.49.23]. He argues a fortiori that a person of Ravana's kind would fare even less well [VR-CE 5.49.32] (speaker: Hanuman). In his later report, he recounts that Ravana, as lord of rakshasas (rākṣasendra), sent the very strong sons of ministers with infantry against him [VR-CE 5.56.103].

Mandodari

In her lament, Mandodari says that Ravana's calamity (vyasana), arising from desire and anger and persistent in nature, has left the whole rakshasa family without a protector (anātha) [VR-CE 6.99.22] (speaker: Mandodari). She also says he is not one to be mourned by her, since his strength and valor (bala-pauruṣa) were widely renowned [VR-CE 6.99.23]. She recalls that sages, brahmins, renowned gandharvas and caranas fled in various directions out of the agitation or fear (udvega) he caused [VR-CE 6.99.4] (speaker: Mandodari).

Vibhishana

Vibhishana characterizes Ravana as one who abandoned dharma and vows, as cruel, merciless and false, and as a molester of others' wives [VR-CE 6.99.32] (speaker: Vibhishana).

Suparshva

Against the condemnations above, Suparshva addresses Ravana as brave (śūra), wise (dhīmān), a chariot-warrior (rathī) and a sword-bearer (khaḍgī) [VR-CE 6.80.56] (speaker: Supārśva). He urges Ravana to look upon Maithili and to turn his anger toward Raghava, with Suparshva's side supporting him [VR-CE 6.80.54].

Kumbhakarna

Kumbhakarna calls Ravana of incomparable prowess (atulavikrama) and of great strength (mahābala) [VR-CE 6.51.38] (speaker: Kumbhakarna). This stands opposed to Sita's statement that Ravana acted as one lacking strength [VR-CE 5.19.25].

Malyavan

Malyavan says that while Ravana roamed through the worlds, great dharma was struck down (vinihata) [VR-CE 6.26.14] (speaker: Malyavan).

Surpanakha

Surpanakha tells Ravana that he does not grasp the terrible danger that has arisen and ought to be understood [VR-CE 3.31.2], and that he does not perceive the danger arising in his own domain [VR-CE 3.31.13] (speaker: Surpanakha).

The rakshasas

The rakshasas recall that a mighty world-guardian, who boasted of friendship with Maheshvara, was defeated in battle by Ravana in anger [VR-CE 6.7.4] (speaker: Rakshasas).

Tara, Pulastya and Mahadeva

Several Uttarakanda speakers place limits on Ravana's strength. Tara says that Vali, the one who could have been Ravana's equal in strength (pratibala), has gone away [VR-CE 7.34.5] (speaker: Tara). Pulastya calls Arjuna's strength incomparable and identifies it as the means by which Dasagriva was defeated [VR-CE 7.33.14] (speaker: Pulastya). Mahadeva says the night-ranger released a very dreadful cry from the pain of his crying out [VR-CE 7.16.26] (speaker: Mahadeva).

Vishrava

Vishrava says that he spoke to Ravana in anger, repeatedly telling him "dhvaṃsasva" (be ruined, perish) [VR-CE 7.11.32] (speaker: Vishrava).

Prahasta

Prahasta answers Daśagrīva with a respectful, reasoned speech [VR-CE 7.11.11] (speaker: Prahasta).

The charioteer

When Ravana speaks to him harshly, his charioteer replies with beneficial and conciliatory words [VR-CE 6.93.10] (speaker: charioteer). The pack attributes the designation of Ravana in this verse as unwise (abuddhi) to the narrator, not to the charioteer [VR-CE 6.93.10].

Contested and contradictory passages

Claims about Ravana in the staging records include explicit statements, metaphors, and uncertain readings, and speakers do not always agree. The judgments and traits sections above keep those sides separate. This page does not choose among them.

Southern-only material

All material in this section comes from the Southern recension (VR-S) and is absent from the Critical Edition core. The verse numbers carry a "+" suffix, which marks passages inserted after a Critical Edition verse. None of the statements below should be read as Critical Edition text.

Aranyakanda: the Janasthana report and the approach to Maricha

In a Southern-only passage, Akampana tells Ravana, whom he addresses as king (rājan), that many rakshasas stationed in Janasthana have been slain [VR-S 3.29.35+4]. Akampana is afraid. He joins his palms and asks Ravana for assurance of safety in a faltering voice [VR-S 3.29.35+58]. Ravana, called lord of the rakshasas (rākṣasādhipa), then replies [VR-S 3.29.35+61]. He asks who struck down "my" dreadful Janasthana [VR-S 3.29.35+54]. He claims that no one who does something displeasing to him, including Maghavan (Indra), Vaishravana, Yama or Vishnu, can obtain happiness (speaker: Ravana) [VR-S 3.29.35+7] [VR-S 3.29.35+55]. He calls himself the Death (kāla) even of Kala. He also says he could burn fire and could bind Death (mṛtyu) with the nature of mortality (speaker: Ravana) [VR-S 3.29.35+56]. He states his intention to go to Janasthana and kill Rama together with Lakshmana [VR-S 3.29.35+22] [VR-S 3.29.35+67]. He also describes Rama's arrows as golden-shafted (rukmapuṃkhāḥ) and winged (patatriṇaḥ) [VR-S 3.29.35+64].

Akampana answers that neither Ravana, addressed as Dashagriva, nor the whole world of rakshasas can conquer Rama in battle. He compares this to heaven being unattainable for sinful people [VR-S 3.29.35+73]. After reflecting, Ravana finds Akampana's speech agreeable and speaks to him [VR-S 3.29.35+77].

When Ravana comes to Maricha, Maricha addresses him as king and lord of rakshasas (rājan, rākṣaseśvara) and asks whether all is well with the worlds [VR-S 3.29.35+39]. Ravana tells him that all of Janasthana was struck down in battle [VR-S 3.29.35+41]. He says his guard or outpost (ārakṣa) was slain by Rama, whom he calls one of unwearied action (akliṣṭakarman) [VR-S 3.29.35+41]. He then asks Maricha, addressed as tāta, to help him (sācivya) abduct Rama's wife [VR-S 3.29.35+41]. Maricha asks who reported Sita to Ravana and calls that person an enemy in the form of a friend (mitrarūpeṇa śatruṇā) (speaker: Maricha) [VR-S 3.29.35+42]. He also asks who it is that says "bring Sita here" and tells Ravana to name that person. The verse itself names no instigator [VR-S 3.29.35+43].

During the abduction, Sita calls the one carrying her off lord of rakshasas (rākṣasendra) and evil-acting (pāpakarmā) (speaker: Sita) [VR-S 3.47.35+2]. She further describes him as powerful (sattvavān), one with a record of conquest (jitakāśī), armed (sāyudha) and ill-minded (durmati) (speaker: Sita) [VR-S 3.47.35+5].

Kishkindhakanda and Sundarakanda

A Southern-only verse in the search instructions says that Ravana, together with Vaidehi, is to be searched for on a mountain's ridges, waterfalls and caves, one place after another [VR-S 4.39.57+3].

In Lanka, yātudhānas are described as engaged in praise of Ravana (rāvaṇastavasaṃyukta). The verse does not name the observer [VR-S 5.3.25+1]. Another verse describes Ravana as subject to desire (kāmaparādhīna), with his mind attached to Sita (sītāsaktamanā). The same verse calls him manda, a word whose sense here is uncertain. The pack treats this as a description of his state in that scene [VR-S 5.16.15+1]. An unnamed speaker tells Ravana that welfare (svasti) would be his if he handed over [Sita] to the best of the Raghus (raghūttama) [VR-S 5.19.18+3].

When Ravana is about to deal with Hanuman, Vibhishana addresses him as lord of Lanka (laṅkeśvara) and chief of rakshasas (rākṣasendra). He asks Ravana to be gracious and to hear words joined with dharma and artha (speaker: Vibhishana) [VR-S 5.50.5+6]. Vibhishana calls him brave (śūra), heroic (vīra), lord of night-rovers (niśācarendra), and hard to conquer even for suras and asuras (speaker: Vibhishana) [VR-S 5.50.9+1]. He says that Ravana has repeatedly conquered bold hosts of suras and daityas, as well as kings, in battle [VR-S 5.50.9+1]. A further verse calls Ravana overlord of night-rovers, enemy of the world of the gods (suralokaśatru), very mighty (mahābala), and foremost among rakshasa kings [VR-S 5.50.17+1].

Yuddhakanda: the council passage at 6.9.22+

A long Southern-only insertion after 6.9.22 presents a council scene. Vibhishana speaks to Ravana in a place apart from others but in the presence of ministers. The grammar of this phrase is slightly ambiguous [VR-S 6.9.22+13]. Vibhishana says he must state what he has seen or heard, and that Ravana should act after arranging matters properly [VR-S 6.9.22+26]. The narrator calls Dashanana destroyer of the gods' armies, very strong, and fierce in valour in battle [VR-S 6.9.22+29].

Ravana tells his counselors that they are able to know pleasant and unpleasant, gain and loss, benefit and harm, and difficulties in dharma, kāma and artha [VR-S 6.9.22+63]. He says they began all undertakings through counsel and action [VR-S 6.9.22+64], and that he might obtain great prosperity (śriyam) when surrounded by them [VR-S 6.9.22+65]. He says that on looking at her he became helpless (avaśa) and came under the sway of Kama [VR-S 6.9.22+72]. He says he promised an auspicious word to the lovely-eyed one, though the verse does not state the content of that word [VR-S 6.9.22+75]. He asks how the forest-dwellers will cross the sea, which cannot be agitated and is full of creatures [VR-S 6.9.22+76]. He says the right course of action is hard to know and asks his listeners to speak according to their understanding [VR-S 6.9.22+77].

Kumbhakarna describes Ravana as overcome by desire (kāmaparīta) and as having lamented [VR-S 6.9.22+80]. He addresses him as mahārāja and says all of this was done by him [VR-S 6.9.22+82]. He says this great undertaking was begun without prior consideration (speaker: Kumbhakarna) [VR-S 6.9.22+87]. He nevertheless declares that he will set the matter right by killing Ravana's enemies [VR-S 6.9.22+88] and will destroy those enemies, addressing Ravana as niśācara [VR-S 6.9.22+89]. Mahaparshva addresses Ravana as mahabala and says "we" will bring all the enemies who have come here under Ravana's control by force of weapons [VR-S 6.9.22+99].

Ravana then tells Mahaparshva to hear a secret (rahasya) of his own [VR-S 6.9.22+101]. He says he once took a woman by force (prasahya) and enjoyed her [VR-S 6.9.22+103]. He says the great-souled deva, identified by context as the grandfather, came to know of that act at the time [VR-S 6.9.22+104]. The deva declared that from that day, if Ravana approached any woman by force against her will, his head would split into a hundred parts (speaker: Brahma, epithet-designated) [VR-S 6.9.22+105]. Ravana says that because of this fear he does not forcibly place Sita on the auspicious bed [VR-S 6.9.22+106]. He also states that he will quickly set Rama ablaze with a hundred bow-released arrows equal to thunderbolts [VR-S 6.9.22+110]. He claims that he conquered this city by the strength of his arms, and that Vaishravana had formerly protected it [VR-S 6.9.22+112].

Vibhishana replies that the addressee will not escape Rama alive, even if protected by Savitr or the Maruts [VR-S 6.9.22+118]. He adds that neither the lap of Vasava, nor death, nor the sky, nor entry into Patala would save him [VR-S 6.9.22+118]. He also says that Indrajit, under the name of Ravana's son, is an enemy with a friend's face (speaker: Vibhishana) [VR-S 6.9.22+144].

Yuddhakanda: messages, spies and oaths

Rama tells Vibhishana that he truly understands the deeds and exploits of Ravana that were recounted to him [VR-S 6.13.5+12]. He swears that he will not enter Ayodhya without having killed Ravana in battle, together with Ravana's sons, people and kinsmen (speaker: Rama) [VR-S 6.13.5+15]. A Southern-only verse names Ravana's spy as Shardula, a rakshasa [VR-S 6.13.23+2]. After seeing the army in agitation everywhere, the spy returns quickly to Lanka and speaks to Ravana [VR-S 6.13.23+2].

Ravana directs that his message be delivered exactly as instructed, firmly and with gentle, excellent speech [VR-S 6.13.23+8]. In the message to Sugriva, he raises the possibility that he might carry off the wife of the king's son and asks what concern that would be of Sugriva's [VR-S 6.13.23+10]. Shuka says he delivered the message as instructed on the northern bank of the sea [VR-S 6.15.33+65]. Greatly terrified, Shuka goes to the lord of the rakshasas [VR-S 6.15.33+62]. Ravana asks whether Shuka has come under the control of those with divided minds (anekacitta) [VR-S 6.15.33+63]. He claims that neither thousand-eyed Vasava, nor Varuna, nor Yama, nor Vaishravana could overpower him in a great battle (speaker: Ravana) [VR-S 6.15.33+45]. He asks when he will set Rama ablaze with blazing arrows released from the bow [VR-S 6.15.33+41].

Sarama refers to Ravana as rākṣasendra, the one by whom Sita was deluded [VR-S 6.24.1+1]. Rama speaks, in an unfinished conditional clause, of having killed Ravana in battle together with his sons, army and vehicles [VR-S 6.31.1+6]. Sugriva asks how he, knowing his own prowess, could bear the sight of Ravana [VR-S 6.31.1+8].

Yuddhakanda: later battle passages

A speaker, Ravana by inference, says he has awakened the addressee for the destruction of enemies. The attribution of this verse is uncertain [VR-S 6.53.11+1]. Ravana tells the night-rangers to stand everywhere surrounded by their own forces [VR-S 6.59.106+11]. He names dusk, midnight and dawn as times for vigilance [VR-S 6.59.106+12].

Rāvaṇi, Indrajit by context, is described as very enraged at that time [VR-S 6.60.28+3]. In an uncertain attribution, an unnamed foe-slayer (amitraghna), possibly Indrajit, strikes Nila with nine arrows and Mainda and Dvivida with three each [VR-S 6.36.17+1]. One verse describes a figure who is apparently Ravana. It says he was angry by nature (prakṛtyā kopanam), and that fresh grief over his son inflamed him further, as rays inflame the sun in the hot season. This attribution is uncertain [VR-S 6.80.16+1].

One speaker conditions a request on the addressee wishing for the killing of Ravana in battle. The speaker is not clearly identified [VR-S 6.89.34+1]. An unnamed speaker says the addressee has come under the sway of Ananga and, through delusion (moha), does not understand [VR-S 6.99.15+8]. Another unnamed speaker says that the one "intoxicated with prowess" (vīryamatta), probably Ravana, did not heed the words of Marica, of Kumbhakarna, or of the speaker's own father [VR-S 6.99.24+3].

Uttarakanda

A Southern-only verse urges the listener to hear more of the account of Ravana's birth. It says the account includes his incomparable power (atula prabhāva) [VR-S 7.8.25+2]. Another verse says that what a rakshasa did before obtaining a boon could be repeated by "this one" now that he has obtained a boon. The next clause says he might devour the three worlds. The verse itself does not identify the referent as Ravana [VR-S 7.10.33+1].

Key verses

VR-CE 1.14.11

तन्महन्नो भयं तस्माद्राक्षसाद्घोरदर्शनात्

वधार्थं तस्य भगवन्नुपायं कर्तुमर्हसि

tan mahan no bhayaṃ tasmād rākṣasād ghoradarśanāt vadhārthaṃ tasya bhagavann upāyaṃ kartum arhasi

Our fear of that dreadful-looking rakshasa is great; O Lord, you ought to devise a means for his killing.

Word-by-word: ["mahan bhayam=great fear", "rākṣasāt=from the rakshasa", "ghoradarśanāt=of dreadful appearance", "vadhārtham=for the purpose of killing", "upāyam=means/device", "kartum arhasi=you should make"]

VR-CE 3.30.10

विष्णुचक्रनिपातैश्च शतशो देवसंयुगे

आहताङ्गं समस्तैश्च देवप्रहरणैस्तथा

viṣṇucakranipātaiś ca śataśo devasaṃyuge āhatāṅgaṃ samastaiś ca devapraharaṇais tathā

His limbs struck hundreds of times by falls of Vishnu's discus in the gods' battle, and likewise by all the gods' weapons.

Word-by-word: ["viṣṇucakranipātaiḥ=by falls of Vishnu's discus", "śataśaḥ=in hundreds", "devasaṃyuge=in the battle with gods", "āhatāṅgam=with struck limbs", "devapraharaṇaiḥ=by gods' weapons"]

VR-CE 3.30.21

राक्षसी भ्रातरं क्रूरं सा ददर्श महाबलम्

तं दिव्यवस्त्राभरणं दिव्यमाल्योपशोभितम्

राक्षसेन्द्रं महाभागं पौलस्त्य कुलनन्दनम्

rākṣasī bhrātaraṃ krūraṃ sā dadarśa mahābalam taṃ divyavastrābharaṇaṃ divyamālyopaśobhitam rākṣasendraṃ mahābhāgaṃ paulastya kulanandanam

The rakshasi saw her cruel, greatly strong brother, in divine garments and ornaments, adorned with divine garlands, lord of rakshasas, of great fortune, delight of the Paulastya family.

Word-by-word: ["rākṣasī=female rakshasa", "bhrātaram=brother", "divyavastrābharaṇam=divine garments and ornaments", "divyamālyopaśobhitam=adorned with divine garlands", "rākṣasendram=lord of rakshasas", "paulastya kulanandanam=delight of the Paulastya line"]

VR-CE 3.30.22

तमब्रवीद्दीप्तविशाललोचनं; प्रदर्शयित्वा भयमोहमूर्छिता

सुदारुणं वाक्यमभीतचारिणी; महात्मना शूर्पणखा विरूपिता

tam abravīd dīptaviśālalocanaṃ; pradarśayitvā bhayamohamūrchitā sudāruṇaṃ vākyam abhītacāriṇī; mahātmanā śūrpaṇakhā virūpitā

She spoke to him of bright, wide eyes a very dreadful speech, having shown (something), overcome by fear and confusion, acting fearlessly, Surpanakha disfigured by a great-souled one.

Word-by-word: ["dīptaviśālalocanam=with bright, wide eyes", "pradarśayitvā=having shown", "bhayamohamūrchitā=overcome by fear and confusion", "sudāruṇam vākyam=very dreadful speech", "abhītacāriṇī=acting without fear", "virūpitā=disfigured"]

VR-CE 3.30.4

स ददर्श विमानाग्रे रावणं दीप्ततेजसं

उपोपविष्टं सचिवैर्मरुद्भिरिव वासवम्

sa dadarśa vimānāgre rāvaṇaṃ dīptatejasaṃ upopaviṣṭaṃ sacivair marudbhir iva vāsavam

He/she saw Ravana of blazing radiance seated near ministers at the vimana's top, like Vasava with the Maruts.

Word-by-word: ["dadarśa=saw", "vimānāgre=at the vimana's top/front", "dīptatejasam=of blazing radiance", "upopaviṣṭam=seated near", "sacivaiḥ=with ministers", "marudbhir iva vāsavam=like Vasava with Maruts"]

VR-CE 3.30.7

देवासुरविमर्देषु वज्राशनिकृतव्रणम्

ऐरावतविषाणाग्रैरुत्कृष्टकिणवक्षसं

devāsuravimardeṣu vajrāśanikṛtavraṇam airāvataviṣāṇāgrair utkṛṣṭakiṇavakṣasaṃ

Wounded by vajra and thunderbolt in the god-asura clashes; chest scarred by the tips of Airavata's tusks.

Word-by-word: ["vajrāśani=thunderbolt weapons", "kṛtavraṇam=having wounds made", "airāvataviṣāṇāgraiḥ=by Airavata's tusk-tips", "kiṇa=scar", "vakṣasam=chest"]

VR-CE 3.30.8

विंशद्भुजं दशग्रीवं दर्शनीयपरिच्छदम्

विशालवक्षसं वीरं राजलक्ष्मणलक्षितम्

viṃśadbhujaṃ daśagrīvaṃ darśanīyaparicchadam viśālavakṣasaṃ vīraṃ rājalakṣmaṇalakṣitam

Twenty-armed, ten-necked, of good-looking attire, broad-chested, a hero marked with royal signs.

Word-by-word: ["viṃśadbhujam=twenty-armed", "daśagrīvam=ten-necked", "paricchadam=attire/accessories", "viśālavakṣasam=broad-chested", "rājalakṣaṇalakṣitam=marked with royal signs"]

VR-CE 3.30.9

स्निग्धवैदूर्यसंकाशं तप्तकाञ्चनकुण्डलम्

सुभुजं शुक्लदशनं महास्यं पर्वतोपमम्

snigdhavaidūryasaṃkāśaṃ taptakāñcanakuṇḍalam subhujaṃ śukladaśanaṃ mahāsyaṃ parvatopamam

Resembling smooth vaidurya, with earrings of heated gold, fine arms, white teeth, large mouth, like a mountain.

Word-by-word: ["snigdhavaidūryasaṃkāśam=resembling glossy vaidurya", "taptakāñcanakuṇḍalam=earrings of heated gold", "śukladaśanam=white-toothed", "mahāsyam=large-mouthed", "parvatopamam=mountain-like"]

References

Distinct inline citations used above:

• VR-CE 1.1.39
• VR-CE 1.1.40
• VR-CE 1.1.41
• VR-CE 1.1.42
• VR-CE 1.1.66
• VR-CE 1.14.11
• VR-CE 1.14.13
• VR-CE 1.14.14
• VR-CE 1.14.19
• VR-CE 1.14.20
• VR-CE 1.14.21
• VR-CE 1.14.6
• VR-CE 1.14.7
• VR-CE 1.14.8
• VR-CE 1.14.9
• VR-CE 1.15.3
• VR-CE 1.15.4
• VR-CE 1.16.9
• VR-CE 1.19.16
• VR-CE 1.19.18
• VR-CE 1.19.21
• VR-CE 1.3.12
• VR-CE 1.3.26
• VR-CE 2.108.11
• VR-CE 3.16.5
• VR-CE 3.30.10
• VR-CE 3.30.13
• VR-CE 3.30.14
• VR-CE 3.30.15
• VR-CE 3.30.16
• VR-CE 3.30.17
• VR-CE 3.30.19
• VR-CE 3.30.20
• VR-CE 3.30.21
• VR-CE 3.30.22
• VR-CE 3.30.4
• VR-CE 3.30.7
• VR-CE 3.30.8
• VR-CE 3.30.9
• VR-CE 3.31.1
• VR-CE 3.31.10
• VR-CE 3.31.13
• VR-CE 3.31.2
• VR-CE 3.31.23
• VR-CE 3.32.19
• VR-CE 3.32.21
• VR-CE 3.32.22
• VR-CE 3.32.3
• VR-CE 3.33.1
• VR-CE 3.33.38
• VR-CE 3.33.4
• VR-CE 3.34.19
• VR-CE 3.34.22
• VR-CE 3.35.7
• VR-CE 3.36.28
• VR-CE 3.37.19
• VR-CE 3.37.20
• VR-CE 3.38.19
• VR-CE 3.38.2
• VR-CE 3.38.4
• VR-CE 3.38.5
• VR-CE 3.39.18
• VR-CE 3.39.19
• VR-CE 3.40.1
• VR-CE 3.40.10
• VR-CE 3.40.5
• VR-CE 3.44.2
• VR-CE 3.44.24
• VR-CE 3.44.25
• VR-CE 3.44.32
• VR-CE 3.44.35
• VR-CE 3.45.28
• VR-CE 3.45.38
• VR-CE 3.46.15
• VR-CE 3.46.16
• VR-CE 3.46.18
• VR-CE 3.46.19
• VR-CE 3.46.4
• VR-CE 3.47.13
• VR-CE 3.47.18
• VR-CE 3.47.2
• VR-CE 3.47.27
• VR-CE 3.47.3
• VR-CE 3.47.31
• VR-CE 3.47.4
• VR-CE 3.48.20
• VR-CE 3.48.23
• VR-CE 3.48.25
• VR-CE 3.49.10
• VR-CE 3.49.11
• VR-CE 3.49.13
• VR-CE 3.49.16
• VR-CE 3.49.19
• VR-CE 3.49.21
• VR-CE 3.49.25
• VR-CE 3.49.35
• VR-CE 3.49.37
• VR-CE 3.49.5
• VR-CE 3.49.9
• VR-CE 3.50.1
• VR-CE 3.50.7
• VR-CE 3.51.13
• VR-CE 3.51.23
• VR-CE 3.51.5
• VR-CE 3.51.6
• VR-CE 3.51.7
• VR-CE 3.51.8
• VR-CE 3.52.10
• VR-CE 3.52.14
• VR-CE 3.52.15
• VR-CE 3.52.16
• VR-CE 3.52.17
• VR-CE 3.52.21
• VR-CE 3.52.22
• VR-CE 3.52.23
• VR-CE 3.52.24
• VR-CE 3.52.26
• VR-CE 3.52.5
• VR-CE 3.52.8
• VR-CE 3.53.13
• VR-CE 3.53.16
• VR-CE 3.53.34
• VR-CE 3.54.13
• VR-CE 3.54.15
• VR-CE 3.54.19
• VR-CE 3.54.20
• VR-CE 3.54.23
• VR-CE 3.54.24
• VR-CE 3.54.26
• VR-CE 3.54.29
• VR-CE 3.54.5
• VR-CE 3.54.7
• VR-CE 3.60.7
• VR-CE 3.63.14
• VR-CE 3.63.16
• VR-CE 3.63.18
• VR-CE 3.64.10
• VR-CE 3.64.9
• VR-CE 4.17.41
• VR-CE 4.25.12
• VR-CE 4.25.15
• VR-CE 4.26.12
• VR-CE 4.26.18
• VR-CE 4.29.34
• VR-CE 4.34.14
• VR-CE 4.34.16
• VR-CE 4.35.10
• VR-CE 4.35.7
• VR-CE 4.37.33
• VR-CE 4.38.6
• VR-CE 4.38.7
• VR-CE 4.39.10
• VR-CE 4.39.11
• VR-CE 4.39.18
• VR-CE 4.39.31
• VR-CE 4.39.56
• VR-CE 4.39.61
• VR-CE 4.41.23
• VR-CE 4.41.26
• VR-CE 4.41.41
• VR-CE 4.41.46
• VR-CE 4.42.13
• VR-CE 4.42.17
• VR-CE 4.42.23
• VR-CE 4.44.10
• VR-CE 4.44.9
• VR-CE 4.47.14
• VR-CE 4.51.5
• VR-CE 4.51.8
• VR-CE 4.55.12
• VR-CE 4.56.10
• VR-CE 4.56.11
• VR-CE 4.56.8
• VR-CE 4.57.15
• VR-CE 4.57.2
• VR-CE 4.57.23
• VR-CE 4.57.28
• VR-CE 4.58.20
• VR-CE 4.58.21
• VR-CE 4.58.28
• VR-CE 4.6.3
• VR-CE 4.6.8
• VR-CE 4.61.6
• VR-CE 4.7.18
• VR-CE 4.7.4
• VR-CE 5.1.139
• VR-CE 5.10.22
• VR-CE 5.11.2
• VR-CE 5.11.49
• VR-CE 5.11.69
• VR-CE 5.16.10
• VR-CE 5.18.1
• VR-CE 5.18.13
• VR-CE 5.18.19
• VR-CE 5.18.21
• VR-CE 5.18.33
• VR-CE 5.18.4
• VR-CE 5.18.5
• VR-CE 5.18.9
• VR-CE 5.19.18
• VR-CE 5.19.19
• VR-CE 5.19.25
• VR-CE 5.19.5
• VR-CE 5.19.7
• VR-CE 5.19.9
• VR-CE 5.2.15
• VR-CE 5.20.1
• VR-CE 5.20.12
• VR-CE 5.20.13
• VR-CE 5.20.15
• VR-CE 5.20.18
• VR-CE 5.20.20
• VR-CE 5.20.29
• VR-CE 5.20.3
• VR-CE 5.20.31
• VR-CE 5.20.35
• VR-CE 5.20.37
• VR-CE 5.20.39
• VR-CE 5.20.5
• VR-CE 5.20.7
• VR-CE 5.20.9
• VR-CE 5.21.1
• VR-CE 5.21.10
• VR-CE 5.21.14
• VR-CE 5.21.4
• VR-CE 5.21.7
• VR-CE 5.21.8
• VR-CE 5.24.10
• VR-CE 5.24.14
• VR-CE 5.24.19
• VR-CE 5.24.45
• VR-CE 5.24.49
• VR-CE 5.24.9
• VR-CE 5.25.21
• VR-CE 5.3.19
• VR-CE 5.32.10
• VR-CE 5.32.15
• VR-CE 5.32.31
• VR-CE 5.32.38
• VR-CE 5.33.46
• VR-CE 5.33.61
• VR-CE 5.33.72
• VR-CE 5.34.26
• VR-CE 5.35.10
• VR-CE 5.35.6
• VR-CE 5.35.64
• VR-CE 5.37.28
• VR-CE 5.37.42
• VR-CE 5.38.11
• VR-CE 5.39.8
• VR-CE 5.40.11
• VR-CE 5.40.35
• VR-CE 5.40.36
• VR-CE 5.42.18
• VR-CE 5.42.19
• VR-CE 5.44.1
• VR-CE 5.44.10
• VR-CE 5.44.13
• VR-CE 5.44.14
• VR-CE 5.44.2
• VR-CE 5.44.5
• VR-CE 5.44.7
• VR-CE 5.45.37
• VR-CE 5.46.1
• VR-CE 5.46.12
• VR-CE 5.46.5
• VR-CE 5.46.50
• VR-CE 5.46.58
• VR-CE 5.46.6
• VR-CE 5.46.7
• VR-CE 5.46.8
• VR-CE 5.46.9
• VR-CE 5.47.17
• VR-CE 5.47.18
• VR-CE 5.47.19
• VR-CE 5.48.12
• VR-CE 5.48.2
• VR-CE 5.48.4
• VR-CE 5.48.5
• VR-CE 5.49.15
• VR-CE 5.49.2
• VR-CE 5.49.23
• VR-CE 5.49.32
• VR-CE 5.49.36
• VR-CE 5.50.15
• VR-CE 5.50.2
• VR-CE 5.51.1
• VR-CE 5.51.2
• VR-CE 5.51.5
• VR-CE 5.56.103
• VR-CE 5.56.104
• VR-CE 5.56.105
• VR-CE 5.56.109
• VR-CE 5.56.115
• VR-CE 5.56.128
• VR-CE 5.56.3
• VR-CE 5.56.46
• VR-CE 5.56.58
• VR-CE 5.56.59
• VR-CE 5.56.60
• VR-CE 5.56.61
• VR-CE 5.56.67
• VR-CE 5.56.83
• VR-CE 5.56.94
• VR-CE 5.56.95
• VR-CE 5.56.96
• VR-CE 5.56.98
• VR-CE 5.65.20
• VR-CE 5.65.28
• VR-CE 5.66.12
• VR-CE 5.66.2
• VR-CE 6.10.10
• VR-CE 6.10.11
• VR-CE 6.10.15
• VR-CE 6.10.5
• VR-CE 6.10.7
• VR-CE 6.106.17
• VR-CE 6.11.37
• VR-CE 6.111.19
• VR-CE 6.113.10
• VR-CE 6.113.8
• VR-CE 6.16.18
• VR-CE 6.16.19
• VR-CE 6.20.11
• VR-CE 6.20.6
• VR-CE 6.21.14
• VR-CE 6.21.16
• VR-CE 6.22.15
• VR-CE 6.22.43
• VR-CE 6.23.41
• VR-CE 6.25.18
• VR-CE 6.25.19
• VR-CE 6.25.8
• VR-CE 6.26.14
• VR-CE 6.27.19
• VR-CE 6.27.2
• VR-CE 6.27.4
• VR-CE 6.28.20
• VR-CE 6.28.28
• VR-CE 6.29.5
• VR-CE 6.31.51
• VR-CE 6.31.58
• VR-CE 6.31.67
• VR-CE 6.31.72
• VR-CE 6.35.13
• VR-CE 6.36.8
• VR-CE 6.37.7
• VR-CE 6.4.39
• VR-CE 6.41.19
• VR-CE 6.41.2
• VR-CE 6.41.20
• VR-CE 6.43.1
• VR-CE 6.45.12
• VR-CE 6.45.5
• VR-CE 6.47.101
• VR-CE 6.47.123
• VR-CE 6.47.132
• VR-CE 6.47.133
• VR-CE 6.47.24
• VR-CE 6.47.27
• VR-CE 6.47.28
• VR-CE 6.47.3
• VR-CE 6.47.32
• VR-CE 6.47.4
• VR-CE 6.47.5
• VR-CE 6.47.55
• VR-CE 6.47.57
• VR-CE 6.47.58
• VR-CE 6.47.6
• VR-CE 6.47.84
• VR-CE 6.47.85
• VR-CE 6.47.89
• VR-CE 6.47.90
• VR-CE 6.47.92
• VR-CE 6.48.61
• VR-CE 6.48.65
• VR-CE 6.48.66
• VR-CE 6.48.67
• VR-CE 6.48.75
• VR-CE 6.48.8
• VR-CE 6.49.25
• VR-CE 6.50.11
• VR-CE 6.50.18
• VR-CE 6.51.11
• VR-CE 6.51.22
• VR-CE 6.51.34
• VR-CE 6.51.37
• VR-CE 6.51.38
• VR-CE 6.53.10
• VR-CE 6.53.7
• VR-CE 6.56.13
• VR-CE 6.56.17
• VR-CE 6.57.5
• VR-CE 6.6.1
• VR-CE 6.65.3
• VR-CE 6.67.2
• VR-CE 6.67.3
• VR-CE 6.7.1
• VR-CE 6.7.4
• VR-CE 6.7.5
• VR-CE 6.7.6
• VR-CE 6.72.13
• VR-CE 6.72.14
• VR-CE 6.73.31
• VR-CE 6.77.8
• VR-CE 6.78.31
• VR-CE 6.79.7
• VR-CE 6.80.13
• VR-CE 6.80.14
• VR-CE 6.80.28
• VR-CE 6.80.31
• VR-CE 6.80.43
• VR-CE 6.80.54
• VR-CE 6.80.55
• VR-CE 6.80.56
• VR-CE 6.81.2
• VR-CE 6.82.36
• VR-CE 6.83.10
• VR-CE 6.83.13
• VR-CE 6.83.15
• VR-CE 6.83.16
• VR-CE 6.83.18
• VR-CE 6.83.9
• VR-CE 6.86.23
• VR-CE 6.87.3
• VR-CE 6.87.39
• VR-CE 6.88.49
• VR-CE 6.89.1
• VR-CE 6.89.33
• VR-CE 6.90.1
• VR-CE 6.91.19
• VR-CE 6.92.15
• VR-CE 6.92.18
• VR-CE 6.92.20
• VR-CE 6.92.22
• VR-CE 6.92.23
• VR-CE 6.93.1
• VR-CE 6.93.10
• VR-CE 6.95.24
• VR-CE 6.95.9
• VR-CE 6.99.20
• VR-CE 6.99.22
• VR-CE 6.99.23
• VR-CE 6.99.25
• VR-CE 6.99.27
• VR-CE 6.99.3
• VR-CE 6.99.32
• VR-CE 6.99.33
• VR-CE 6.99.37
• VR-CE 6.99.38
• VR-CE 6.99.4
• VR-CE 6.99.5
• VR-CE 6.99.6
• VR-CE 6.99.7
• VR-CE 6.99.9
• VR-CE 7.1.24
• VR-CE 7.1.25
• VR-CE 7.11.10
• VR-CE 7.11.11
• VR-CE 7.11.31
• VR-CE 7.11.32
• VR-CE 7.11.33
• VR-CE 7.11.36
• VR-CE 7.11.4
• VR-CE 7.12.19
• VR-CE 7.13.17
• VR-CE 7.13.33
• VR-CE 7.13.35
• VR-CE 7.15.13
• VR-CE 7.15.16
• VR-CE 7.15.21
• VR-CE 7.15.22
• VR-CE 7.15.27
• VR-CE 7.15.9
• VR-CE 7.16.17
• VR-CE 7.16.19
• VR-CE 7.16.25
• VR-CE 7.16.26
• VR-CE 7.16.29
• VR-CE 7.17.21
• VR-CE 7.17.25
• VR-CE 7.17.31
• VR-CE 7.17.4
• VR-CE 7.18.10
• VR-CE 7.18.12
• VR-CE 7.18.18
• VR-CE 7.18.6
• VR-CE 7.18.7
• VR-CE 7.18.9
• VR-CE 7.19.18
• VR-CE 7.19.3
• VR-CE 7.20.16
• VR-CE 7.20.18
• VR-CE 7.20.19
• VR-CE 7.21.21
• VR-CE 7.21.6
• VR-CE 7.22.13
• VR-CE 7.23.22
• VR-CE 7.23.37
• VR-CE 7.23.38
• VR-CE 7.23.40
• VR-CE 7.23.43
• VR-CE 7.23.5
• VR-CE 7.23.7
• VR-CE 7.24.19
• VR-CE 7.24.21
• VR-CE 7.24.23
• VR-CE 7.24.24
• VR-CE 7.24.25
• VR-CE 7.24.27
• VR-CE 7.24.28
• VR-CE 7.24.33
• VR-CE 7.25.10
• VR-CE 7.25.12
• VR-CE 7.25.26
• VR-CE 7.25.27
• VR-CE 7.25.28
• VR-CE 7.25.31
• VR-CE 7.25.44
• VR-CE 7.25.6
• VR-CE 7.25.7
• VR-CE 7.25.9
• VR-CE 7.26.12
• VR-CE 7.26.13
• VR-CE 7.26.19
• VR-CE 7.27.23
• VR-CE 7.27.6
• VR-CE 7.29.32
• VR-CE 7.29.35
• VR-CE 7.29.37
• VR-CE 7.29.4
• VR-CE 7.29.6
• VR-CE 7.29.7
• VR-CE 7.29.8
• VR-CE 7.31.11
• VR-CE 7.31.24
• VR-CE 7.31.28
• VR-CE 7.31.40
• VR-CE 7.32.25
• VR-CE 7.32.26
• VR-CE 7.32.28
• VR-CE 7.32.31
• VR-CE 7.32.33
• VR-CE 7.32.39
• VR-CE 7.32.55
• VR-CE 7.32.59
• VR-CE 7.32.7
• VR-CE 7.33.14
• VR-CE 7.34.10
• VR-CE 7.34.16
• VR-CE 7.34.2
• VR-CE 7.34.29
• VR-CE 7.34.32
• VR-CE 7.34.34
• VR-CE 7.34.35
• VR-CE 7.34.39
• VR-CE 7.34.4
• VR-CE 7.34.5
• VR-CE 7.35.2
• VR-CE 7.36.24
• VR-CE 7.37.7
• VR-CE 7.37.8
• VR-CE 7.38.3
• VR-CE 7.40.5
• VR-CE 7.40.6
• VR-CE 7.44.5
• VR-CE 7.55.13
• VR-CE 7.60.14
• VR-S 1.14.21+1
• VR-S 1.2.41+1
• VR-S 3.29.35+22
• VR-S 3.29.35+39
• VR-S 3.29.35+4
• VR-S 3.29.35+41
• VR-S 3.29.35+42
• VR-S 3.29.35+43
• VR-S 3.29.35+54
• VR-S 3.29.35+55
• VR-S 3.29.35+56
• VR-S 3.29.35+58
• VR-S 3.29.35+61
• VR-S 3.29.35+64
• VR-S 3.29.35+67
• VR-S 3.29.35+7
• VR-S 3.29.35+73
• VR-S 3.29.35+77
• VR-S 3.47.35+2
• VR-S 3.47.35+5
• VR-S 4.39.57+3
• VR-S 5.16.15+1
• VR-S 5.19.18+3
• VR-S 5.3.25+1
• VR-S 5.50.17+1
• VR-S 5.50.5+6
• VR-S 5.50.9+1
• VR-S 6.13.23+10
• VR-S 6.13.23+2
• VR-S 6.13.23+8
• VR-S 6.13.5+12
• VR-S 6.13.5+15
• VR-S 6.15.33+41
• VR-S 6.15.33+45
• VR-S 6.15.33+62
• VR-S 6.15.33+63
• VR-S 6.15.33+65
• VR-S 6.24.1+1
• VR-S 6.31.1+6
• VR-S 6.31.1+8
• VR-S 6.36.17+1
• VR-S 6.53.11+1
• VR-S 6.59.106+11
• VR-S 6.59.106+12
• VR-S 6.60.28+3
• VR-S 6.80.16+1
• VR-S 6.89.34+1
• VR-S 6.9.22+101
• VR-S 6.9.22+103
• VR-S 6.9.22+104
• VR-S 6.9.22+105
• VR-S 6.9.22+106
• VR-S 6.9.22+110
• VR-S 6.9.22+112
• VR-S 6.9.22+118
• VR-S 6.9.22+13
• VR-S 6.9.22+144
• VR-S 6.9.22+26
• VR-S 6.9.22+29
• VR-S 6.9.22+63
• VR-S 6.9.22+64
• VR-S 6.9.22+65
• VR-S 6.9.22+72
• VR-S 6.9.22+75
• VR-S 6.9.22+76
• VR-S 6.9.22+77
• VR-S 6.9.22+80
• VR-S 6.9.22+82
• VR-S 6.9.22+87
• VR-S 6.9.22+88
• VR-S 6.9.22+89
• VR-S 6.9.22+99
• VR-S 6.99.15+8
• VR-S 6.99.24+3
• VR-S 7.10.33+1
• VR-S 7.8.25+2

Source-only article compiled from Valmiki Ramayana verses in the Critical Edition (VR-CE) and Southern-only passages (VR-S). Inline citations were checked against the project verse index.